Econ 2000
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Make sure microeconomics—orange book January 20, 2011 Causation Versus Correlation Median Weekly Earnings of Full Time Workers Not evidence of discrimination because all we are looking at is race and gender Earnings is based on education, job type, labor market experience, location, skills, etc Can’t predict someone’s earning based off of gender and race only Discrimination in labor markets does exist, but this isn’t the evidence for it More full time workers are men which will cause a difference in weekly earnings The highest earning workers are mostly men Women have children and are stay at home moms. They get married and don’t go to college. Women take some time out of the labor force to raise kids. Highest earning workers are executives, athletes, etc. Had a great idea or a special skill Men have high paying jobs and men don’t Need to account for people’s age and when they entered the labor market Different types of jobs have different salaries; men and women are attracted to different types of jobs If men and women have different education levels, they will probably be paid differently On average, more education and you will earn more Market rewards people for higher education levels Over time percentage of men and women with high school degrees increases and is very close More jobs for men that don’t require degrees or high school manual labor, farms, ranches, blue collar, etc Over time, men and women are more likely to go to college and get a degree Difference in percentage of men with degree and women with degree
More men have higher education levels, therefore difference in earning levels immediately Why do more men have college degrees than women? Look at earning levels by industry and job type as well Today more women are becoming educated at a faster rate than men Labor Force Participation Rates in Economy By Gender Participating: working or looking for work Not participation: no job and not looking for work 73% men and 58.8% women (April 2007) women’s labor force participation rate has increased over time and men’s has decreased women’s has almost doubled gender roles are changing women are working more and getting more educated women are choosing to go to school and choosing to work something is driving women to make these choices incentives are different for women than they used to be discrimination of women in the work force is decreasing women taking men’s previous jobs Less than 1% of women were getting engineering degrees in 1971. 18.8% in 2004. No incentive if they won’t hire you or they will pay you less because you are a woman. 2004: 19% women engineers and 78.5% women teachers engineers make more money than teachers market rewards more education and different types of education choose career off career opportunities and money More women in the labor market increase competition for jobs
More two worker households and people are retiring earlier decrease in men in labor force participation Whites Vs. Non Whites with High School Diploma 25 years and over Both increasing over time Gap begins to close, but more whites have high school diplomas Market rewards for higher education Non whites choosing not to go to finish high school More blacks under poverty level Must quit high school and work to support the family One of the greatest predictors of getting an education is the education of your parents. Intergeneration of human capital Whites Vs. Non Whites with College Degrees 2000: almost a difference of 2:1 both groups increasing over time, but still a large difference geographical variation of where whites and non whites live south vs. north parts of cities the white suburbs to get into college you must have a good primary education poor schools are in urbanized areas where there are poorer areas has to do with economic circumstances of where a kid grows up educational resources available to the groups big difference in education and market rewards education Further divide to compare apples to apples Men and women with only high school degrees
$200/ week difference Men and women with college degrees (by type of degree) This isn’t comparing apples to apples still because the jobs are different January 25, 2011 Are men and women being funneled into different careers? Or is it free choice? Earnings are determined by many factors, not just race and gender. Its really difficult to capture Legal and illegal Downturns in market, legal labor market opportunities are low, crime increases, incarceration rates increase Primary and secondary Can’t look at simple means Year Vs. Murder Rate (States With Death Penalty and Non Death Penalty States) Murder rate is higher in states with death penalty than states without the death penalty every year Murder rates are decreasing over time Does capital punishment work or not? Difference between causation and correlation Easy to dupe and trick people A simple correlation doesn’t tell us x causes y Positive correlation yes The ARRA American Reinvestment and Recovery Act $787 billion Stimulus Package Passed on Feb 17, 2009 Follows $300 billion TARP (Troubled Asset Relief Package) passed in Oct 2008 by President Bush Bailed out all the banks debate over bailing out Wall Street and not Main St Follows $170 billion stimulus ($300 to $1200 checks to households) passed in Feb 2008 by President Bush
Every household had different tax qualifications $288 billion allocated for tax relief Most of remaining $499 billion for entitlement programs (eg. Unemployment insurance) $452 billion currently “available” $347 billion has been “announced”—announced what to do with it $247 billion to states $63 billion to federal spending bulk of spending went to entitlement programs health and human services Medicaid expansion or to help states pay for people already on Medicaid Department of education Help state schools from going bankrupt Stops this year Still wasn’t enough Student financial assistance Graph of unemployment rate with and without the recovery plan Convinced government to pass the stimulus plan In reality, we passed the plan and the unemployment rate jumped to 10% and today 9.39.4% Q1 2008: housing market just started tipping Fall 2008: economy started spinning out of control Argument: if we didn’t pass it, the unemployment would be worse now Our sophisticated models and techniques were not able to forecast the stimulus Conclude: the economy was much worse than what we thought and this forecasting model was completely wrong Our state of the art economics was completely wrong
It can be argued that unemployment insurance alters the employment incentives Less incentive to work Some people really need the insurance Obama went to Congressional Budget Office and had them forecast the effect of the Health Care Plan in 20 years on the budget We can’t forecast this, especially this far We can’t even forecast the employment rate in the next quarter Convinced the politicians to go for the health care plan Really difficult to draw conclusions from simple correlations CHAPTER 1: ECONOMIC ISSUES AND CONCEPTS The Self Organizing Economy Self interest is foundation of economic order Incentives within an economy People acting within their own self interest Ex. Brewery that opened in Baton Rouge was done out of the entrepreneurs own self interest to benefit themselves Their self interest, not their benevolence or altruism Efficiency Adam Smith (17231790) Founder of capitalism “Wealth of Nations” author Idea of self interest has been around since Socrates People aren’t working to be nice to you, they want your money Producer produces not be nice, but because they want something from you There are such things as non profit organizations maximize welfare of certain groups of people Welfare: wellbeing
Efficiency: the resources are organized so as to produce the largest possible amount of the goods and services that people want to purchase Maximizes the size of the pie (Gross Domestic Product aka. GDP or welfare/social happiness) Social market doesn’t care how pie is distributed among individuals Efficiency doesn’t care about distribution, ONLY size of the pie Lowest cost or high speed Main Characteristics of Market Economies Self interest guides individuals Individuals respond to incentives Rational people respond to incentives Axiom of choice Individual is rational if they can conclude: if I prefer my iphone over my clicker and my clicker over my water, then I prefer my iphone over my water Does a murderer respond to capital punishment? How is a murderer rational? Is he insane? Maybe every murderer is insane. Maybe every murderer doesn’t respond to capital punishment. Prices and quantities are set in (relatively) free markets in which individuals trade voluntarily Market outcomes: price and quantity Wage rate and weekly earnings= price for labor Cost of toothpaste= price Committing a crime, there is a price you might have to pay People employed in a market= quantity Price control that governments can enforce Minimum wage Price control on health care, rent, etc Market where people trade voluntarily prices are set by supply and demand
Institutions, created by the state, protect private property and enforce contractual obligations Government’s role is to set the rules of the game Sets through force, fines, penalties, punishments Government isn’t the only one that sets up institutions Religion is an institution within a market economy Sets social norms within an economy and determines how people behave Social norms, law, religion, government Social norms have a social cost Economics in America can’t always be applied to other market economies Scarcity, Choice, and Opportunity Cost Economics is the study of the use of human behavior Economics is the study of the use of scarce resources to satisfy unlimited human wants Resources A society’s resources are divided into land, labor, and capital Land: geographic boundaries Labor: human beings, time Capital: cash on balance sheet, vehicles used in production process, machines, buildings owned or leased, what is being produced, human capital (doesn’t have to be physical) LSU: graduates, knowledge, inputs to production, buildings, campus, professors, human capital, electricity, desks, facility trucks Resources= factors of production Budget= scarce resource Constraint Actual money in the bank Time Scarce because only so much time in a day
Make choices of what gets done today and what doesn’t Outputs are goods (tangibles) or services (intangibles) Home production is not counted in GDP Very difficult to rank countries based on GDP because countries have different levels of home production 2 income earners= less home production and more outsourcing Scarcity and Choice resources can produce only a fraction of goods and service desired by people resources are fixed and limited only so many workers to work in the economy scarcity in economy implies the need for choice how to use resources every choice has an associated cost opportunity cost ex. Pumping gas direct cost= money you pay per gallon opportunity cost= time to get to gas station and pump gas, could have bought something else with that money Opportunity Cost the benefit given up by not using resources in the best alternative way the decision to go to college go to college or go straight to work direct cost of college education tuition, books, etc opportunity cost of time you could have been working instead of going to college forgone earnings after college, get a job and earnings grow as well
decision to go to graduate school Choice: Lattes and Coffee Example Budget sets constraint Individual doesn’t have to spend all of budget Unattainable combinations= they can’t afford On the line= using all of their budget We have to give up 2 scones for 1 latte No matter how much you are consuming, the prices stay the same Straight line Individual making consumption choices If budget is $80, how much is a scone? A latte? Production Possibilities Boundary Economy making production choices similar to above One extreme: produce all military goods Other extreme: produce all civilian goods Inside boundary= attainable combinations Not using all resources; leaving resources unused Outside boundary= unattainable combinations Curved line makes it more tricky Give up a few civilian goods for a larger amount of military goods Opportunity cost is low because relatively straight line Easy to transfer resources for jeans and sneakers to guns and tanks Price of switching changes depending on where you are at Steep line, opportunity cost is high
Already have a lot of tanks, but producing more will be hard Have a bunch of tanks, but not enough food in the economy. People are starving and dying. The people in result are less productive and can’t produce. The question is: Do you want to specialize and trade. Or be self sufficient and balance production. For this example think of it as a closed economy with no trade Moving from top of graph and coming back down (slope of line is going from flat to steep) represents increasing opportunity costs Point a: cost of tank is cheap Point c: cost of tank is expensive Curved line: prices change depending on where you are at Most Important Part of Chapter One: understanding the graphs The effect of economic growth on the production possibilities boundary Things are always changing in an economy. Therefore its possible for curves to shift around Outward shift Resources stay the same, we are being more productive Changes in technology Doesn’t have to shift in a parallel fashion If you know what the budget is, you should be able to back out the prices. Shape of line tells us about prices. We can indicate price increases and decreases. Innovation can improve the production of baseballs, but not the production of bats. This innovations though will still allow us to produce more bats. More productive at producing bats now because we can produce the balls more easily now. Innovations for the military goods, allow us to consume better healthcare. February 1, 2011 Maximizing decisions People are maximizers Consumers maximize utility, producers maximize profit Marginal decisions
All decisions are based on weighing marginal cost vs. marginal benefit Last bite example Complexity of production Adam Smith specialization and the division of labor Specialization: allocation of different jobs to different people Each individual does own job. Becomes very good at specific job and efficient. More efficient than self sufficiency Individual abilities differ comparative advantage Focusing on one activity leads to improvements—learning by doing After doing something repetitively, you will get better at it HOWEVER, what happens when someone gets sick We don’t want managers to be specialists. We want them to be generalists. Need knowledge of entire firm. Benefits of job rotation Accumulate variety of task specific human capital Acquire nice general mix of skills Markets and Money Specialization must be accompanied by trade Money= important part of economy Money eliminates barter Uniform currency Value of dollar is really important in terms of international trade Types of Economic Systems 3 pure types traditional
you did what your father did command soviet union all planned free market in practice every economy is a mixed economy US is mostly free market, but we do have a government Some decisions made by firms and households and some by the government The Great Debate Capitalism vs. Communism Karl Marx argued that free market economies could not be relied upon to generate a “just” distribution of output. Argued for benefits of a centrally planned economic system. Soviet Union in 1920s and some other countries (Eastern Europe and China) adopted socialist/communist systems Communism works on the chalkboard and theoretically Free market and communism can generate the same profits and products Distribution of the pie is key difference Communism= equal Inequality gives you incentives Government in the Modern Mixed Economy Key government provided institutions in market economies are private property and freedom of contract Governments also intervene to: Correct market failures Provide public goods Offset the effects of externalities Why public school? Welfare? Food stamps? We believe there is an externality associated with it Markets often work well, but government policy can improve the outcome for society as a whole We do see free market work, but its working under a set of rules
How Economists Work February 1, 2011
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How Economists Work MATH REVIEW National income as a function of consumption C=f(Y) Micro level Y= household’s annual income C= total consumption The amount of the consumption expenditure depends on income. Consumption as functioning income Graphing Functional Relations Relationship between 2 variables may be positive or negative; linear or nonlinear Maximum= peak Always look for Slope=0 Minimum= valley Statistical Analysis Used to text a hypothesis Correlation Vs. Calculation Positive correlation: X and Y move together Negative correlation: X and Y move in opposite directions X and Y may not be casually related May be related in the opposite way to what is expected= reverse causality Most economic predictions attempt to establish causality. Statistic test often attempt to distinguish between correlation and causality
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How Economists Work
04/15/2011
Ex. Does sex make you live longer? February 3, 2011 Positive and Normative Advice Normative statements depend on value judgments and opinions—cannot be settled by recourse to facts Is capital punishment good or bad? Positive statements do not involve value judgments. They are statements about what is, was, or will be. Does capital punishment deter crime? Disagreements Among Economists Minimum Wage Debate Raising the minimum wage reduces employment or not? Sales Tax vs. Income Tax More often debated among academics Capital Punishment Been bickering about this since the 1970s Economists also venture into debates such as global warming and the cause of autism Economic theories A theory consists of A set of definitions about variables Endogenous and exogenous variables Endogenous: determined by the model (equilibrium price, equilibrium quantity) Exogenous: hold constant; pretend that it’s a perfect world and they don’t change a set of assumptions motives, physical relations, direction of causation, conditions of application assume that the taxes are exogenous taxes can be determined by the market a set of predictions or hypotheses
Demand, Supply, and Price
04/15/2011
February 3, 2011 Demand “Quantity Demanded” amount of a product that consumers desire to purchase in some time period quantity demanded quantity bought or exchanged refers to actual purchases quantity demanded is a flow, as opposed to a stock. A stock is at a particular moment. A flow if over a period of time (dollars/year) Quantity Demanded and Price Law of Demand: If price goes up, people will want to buy less of it. The price of a product and the quantity demanded are negatively related. (Ceteris paribus) Ceteris paribus( other things equal) implies that all factors other than the price of the good do not change Holding everything else constant Simplifies Why? There are usually several products that can satisfy any given want or desire A reduction in the price of a product means that the specific desire can now be satisfied more cheaply by buying more of that product Herd mentality Shortage of a good. Demand increases and price increases. Price went up on potatoes. I better go buy some more because the price will probably go up tomorrow. Violates rationality Price of stock going up. Buy more because price will be higher tomorrow. Demand Schedules and Demand Curves Demand schedule: table that shows the relationship between quantity demanded and the price of the commodity, other things being equal Demand curves: graphical representation of the relationship between quantity demanded and the price of the commodity, other things being equal Downward sloping, negative slope, inversely related Price and how much consumers want
Demand, Supply, and Price
04/15/2011
Nothing involving producers yet These demand schedules and corresponding curves broken down by income illustrate that demand is a function of income. Higher income shifts out the demand curve. Factors that shift the demand curve Average income Prices of other goods—substitutes or complements Taste/ preferences Distribution of income Shifts people in and out of markets Population Expectations about the future Price of gasoline affecting people’s car purchases Shifts in the Demand Curve As “increase in demand” indicates a shift in the demand curve An “increase in quantity demanded” is more tricky. Often represents movement along the demand curve, but if the demand curve shifts, the quantity demanded will also change for a given price. D0= initial period; t=0 Shifts of and Movements along the Demand Curve Given the supply of the product, the change in demand will put pressure on prices in the market. The increase in price to p2 is not magic After price increases to p2, quantity demanded falls to Q2 Convenience store selling snickers bars for $1. A lot of demand for snickers. You will increase price. Demand causes upward pressure on price. Demand will then fall a little bit. As you raise price, the demand will fall. There are still people outside, so you know that you can keep raising the price. Keep raising price, until you have enough snickers bars to go around. # bars= people wanting bars
Demand, Supply, and Price
04/15/2011
Taking advantage of people outside. Up until a point where you stop. Then price movement will be along the demand curve. Supply Quantity supplied: amount of a commodity that producers wish to sell in some time period Quantity supplied is the amount that firms are willing to offer for sale and not necessarily the quantity actually sold ~~~ vocab is very similar to demand. Just switching words supply and demand~~~ Quantity Supplied and Price The price of a the product and the quantity supplied are positively related (ceteris paribus) Producers are interested in making profits. If the price of a particular product rises, then the production and sale of this product is more profitable. Supply Curve Supply curve is upward sloping. Indicating that the price and quantity supplied are positively related. As prices rise, producers want to sell more Both price and quantity are endogenous variables both determined by the model You are used to thinking of independent on x axis and dependent variable on y axis but here they are both dependent on the model Similar to demand curves, supply is a function of several variables too. Here, supply changes due to changes in production costs. Factors that shift the supply curve Prices of inputs Technology Government taxes or subsidies Price of other products Expectations about the future Number of suppliers Markets where they are tons of suppliers Monopoly only one supplier There is an intersection point equilibrium price
Demand, Supply, and Price
04/15/2011
At P1, you can look at price and then see how many are demanded in the market If excess demand, incentive to raise the price
February 8, 2011 Supply and demand together: eventually the market settles down and comes to an equilibrium. Examples of equilibrium: where you sit in class, when you go to work out, where you eat Comfortable Changes in Market Prices 4 laws of supply and demand 1. An increase in a demand causes an increase in both equilibrium price and equilibrium quantity 2. A decrease in demand causes a decrease in both equilibrium price and equilibrium quantity 3. An increase in supply causes a decrease in the equilibrium price and an increase in the equilibrium quantity. 4. A decrease in supply causes an increase in the equilibrium price and decrease in equilibrium quantity. Supply Curve
Demand, Supply, and Price Po P’ P’’ Demand Curve Qs Q’ Qd Excess Demand At a higher price, the demand falls. As the price is lowered, more demand. Increase in Demand P1 Supply Curve Po Demand Curve, 1 Demand Curve, 0 Qo Q1 shift out quantity increases and so does price excess demand will shrink will increased price orange line= excess demand o line out door and don’t have enough for consumers excess supply o when you lock the doors at night, there is excess inventory o lower price little by little, excess supply decreases
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Demand, Supply, and Price market is maximizing profits for sure revenue= quantity * price revenue cost= profits Increase in supply affects the supply curve Example: AT&T’s New Data Plans Unlimited plan $30 2G plan $25 200 MB Plan $15 Each additional GB is $10 Some people are better off and some people are worse off. If the internet was free, who would provide it? Why would you provide it for a loss? Nothing is free Market for Unlimited Data Plan for iPhone AT&T was the only vendor at the time Now Verizon has the iPhone Increase in Supply 2 providers supply increases and price decreases downward pressure on AT&T’s prices now that Verizon has the iPhone not good for AT&T and its share holders Market for iPhone at AT&T Monopolistic market before Verizon When Verizon enters the market, demand decreases. Price falls and number of units sold falls
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Demand, Supply, and Price
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AT&T segregates market into low end data users and high end data users Must do something to account for all of this Didn’t want to lose customers and wanted to boost their revenue Now with low end pricing, they don’t lose the market with the people who are not willing to pay the higher amount Reduced the loss of demand February 10, 2011 The Determination of Price The concept of a market Market: situation in which buyers and sellers negotiate the transaction of some goods or services Markets may differ in the degree of competition among various buyers and sellers In a perfectly competitive market buyers and sellers are price takers. The algebra of market equilibrium Demand curve: Qd=abP Supply Curve: Qs=c+dP The values a and c are intercepts and b and d are the slope coefficients for the separate equations. Demand curve is downward sloping and supply curve is upward sloping In equilibrium the forces of supply and demand have come together. Qd=Qs=Q* Occurs at a particular market price, P=P* P*=(ac)/(b+d) Negative pricepay someone to take something from you Where supply and demand curves intersect is Q* and P* If c>a, then market is going to fail A vendor might not know what his demand curve looks like Steep demand curve vs. flat demand curve
Demand, Supply, and Price
04/15/2011
The change in demand will be vastly different Demand curve indicates consumer’s flexibility with price Inelastic demand: steep demand curve Big negative slope (big d) Elastic demand curve: a little pull and it changes a lot Relatively flat; not so steep Slope closer to 0 than inelastic demand curve (small d) In economics, care a lot about how steep a curve is Price sensitiveness of goods can be detected by demand curves Inelastic curve examples: price of gasoline in baton rouge(not a lot of public transportation); cigarettes Elastic curve: Customers are price sensitive There is a reason why coke and pepsi are the same price. Because they are close substitutes. Whenever there are close substitutes, you end up with elastic demand curves. Very price sensitive Governments change markets by imposing taxes.
Elasticity
04/15/2011
February 15, 2011 Exam Ch. 14 multiple choice bring a small scantron The Measurement of Price Elasticity Elasticity: greek letter eta: n N= percentage change in quantity demanded/ percentage change in price N= (Change in Qd/Qd)/(Change in p/p) Demand elasticity is negative, but economists emphasize the absolute value Understood that is its negative Elasticity measures the change in p and Q relative to some base values of p and Q The Use of Average Price and Quantity [(Q1Q0)/Qbar]/[(p1p0)/pbar] Elastic Demand: stretchy Inelastic Demand: not stretchy Three different goods. Reduce price by same amount for each. Tor the same price reduction, the quantity demanded is different. We need to think about percentage changes and not absolute changes. For some items the price change is a bigger cut for one item than another. Also a large demand, might not be that large of a demand because previously there was a high demand. Same price cut, but different percentage cuts and different effects in each market. Elasticity of demand is either a small number of a big number Elasticity of demand ex. Elasticity of demand=2.0 Interpreting Numerical Elasticities Inelastic demand (abs value of N1) Stretchy; responds to prices A given % change in p results in a larger % change in Qd Unitary Elastic Demand (abs value of N=1) A given % change in p results in the same % change in Qd Elasticity Along a Linear Demand Curve Demand curve is linear. Slope is constant and same everywhere. The elasticity of demand is not constant at every point on the curve. Demand is elastic toward the top and inelastic toward the bottom. What Determines Elasticity of Demand Tends to be high when there are many close substitutes Availability of substitutes is determined by: How specifically the product is defined Whether the good is necessity or a luxury The length of the time interval (short run vs. long run) Short Run demand is more inelastic than long run demand Less price sensitive With more time, you can adjust Short run: not enough time to adjust Physically constrained Short run change in demand is just a little bit less
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Elasticity Long run change in demand is larger Consumers are able to pull out of the market Excise tax: Tax on units sold Tax causes supply curve to shift in Close substitues Govn’t in 80s tried to tax yachts made and sold in US Well the foreign yachts are close substitutes Democrats wanted to place this tax on the rich people Reagan was getting low tax cuts Elastic demand curve Very sensitive to price changes Devastating effects on the yacht industry Consumers go overseas Tax was repealed a year later February 17, 2011 Luxury Tax on Yachts(>$100K) Tax on US made luxury yachts Joint Committee on Taxation: $31 Million Reality: only $16.6 Million 7,600 Jobs Lost in Boating Industry lost income taxes and increase unemployment benefits net loss of $7.6 Million example of unintended consequences govn’t didn’t understand the type of market this was and what demand there was
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Elasticity
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What makes a market elastic? Close substitutes US vs. European Want to impose taxes on an inelastic market If govn’t really cares about tax revenue, you definitely want to impose taxes on inelastic markets Consumers bear burden and businesses profit off of it If you are a voter and want govn’t to impose taxes, but you don’t want to pay it, then you want the govn’t to impose taxes on the elastic markets because the big bad businesses will bear the cost of the taxes Extremes Perfectly inelastic demand consumer will pay the whole tax Seller gets original price they were getting Demand will not fall at all Tax revenues are high Perfectly elastic demand Good idea to work through examples with these 2 extremes Why isn’t the demand curve shifting? The excise tax check is written by the producer If it was a tax on the consumer side (income tax) The demand curve would be shifting in because you are the one writing the check Ex. You must pay $0.50 per track downloaded on iTunes Shift your demand curve by $0.50 Total Expenditure and Quantity Demanded There is a direct relations between the elasticity along the demand curve and the consumer’s total expenditure As you dec price, quantity demanded inc, expenditure inc for a little while and then eventually falls off The expenditure curve is hump shaped while prices are falling, units demanded are increasing
Elasticity
04/15/2011
If you sell the first few units, its at a high price. Keep lowering the price to sell more units. Directly related to the elasticity. People will enter the market when the price drops Revenue curve/ expenditure curve Steep slope at beginning. Slope begins to flatten out. Peaks. Starts to go negative and then slope gets more and more negative. Lowering price gets a lot more people to buy (elastic). Then reach peak and demand becomes inelastic. Lowering price will not get very many people to buy. Revenue is decreasing. Price Elasticity of Supply Price elasticity of supply measures the responsiveness of the quantity supplied to a change in the product’s own price Ns= percentage change in quantity supplied/ percentage change in price Same as price elasticity of demand but change in supply vs. change in demand in numerator Other Demand Elasticities Income elasticity of demand Ny= percentage change in quantity demanded/percentage change in income Ny>0, the good is said to be normal Ny0, then X and Y are substitutes If Nxy better chance of landing prime job
Economics of Dating
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To delay finding also results in lost income When selecting among a potential set of possible alternatives Desirable to select the best possible expected match You may think he is the perfect guy Expectation associated with the every match Uncertainty None of those alternatives may be selected if the outside option is better than the alternatives immediately available Implies that you keep searching Similar to a reservation wage We all have an outside option Single: whatever else you do with your time Taken: your boyfriend or girlfriend/ husband or wife If you don’t like any of your alternatives then you keep searching Assortive Matching Do people (or workers or firms) match with other people with similar characteristics? Or do opposites attract? Negative assertive matching: different skills may be complements Opposites attract Positive assertive matching: people with similar tastes/interests more likely to agree on purchases and time use These concepts are related to household production or just the way personalities interact If you are both good at the same things and both bad at the same things, then you might encounter a problem. Want your partner to have skills you don’t have Prices in the dating market Supply and demand for characteristics (individual attributes) determines the “price” for those characteristics The more attributes you have that are in high demand by the market, the stronger is your market
Economics of Dating
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Consider nose jobs and breast augmentations those have an actual price This is the pool of potential mates that you can select from No different than having strong attributes on your resume that determines your options for employment The Data Used in this Paper Data provided by an online dating service Subset of 22,000 users in Boston and San Diego in 2003 Users create profiles Reveal info about themselves and about what they want Online dating is supposed to reduce search costs by presenting this info upfront They have detailed second by second account of user activities The user first searches, which brings up potential matches They know which profiles were clicked on, and which were not Whether the additional pictures were viewed or not Once the profile is viewed, they know whether an email was sent or not They know if email was responded to They also know the content of the email Who Uses Online Dating? Demographic/ socioeconomic characteristics Compare the characteristics of online users to data from the Current Population Survey in the same cities US census Online users overly represented by men Ethnic distribution was about the same as the real city population Fraction of divorced women higher than divorced men Men who are married and not separated: 6.3% in SD, 7.2% Boston Online users have slightly higher education levels
Economics of Dating
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Higher incomes than reported in the CPS Self reported attractiveness Very good looks: 19% men, 24% women Above average: 49% men, 48% women Average looks: 29% men, 26% women Leaves less than 1% with below average looks Clearly a problem with truth telling Had people go through photos and rate them Self reported weight Reported weights of men are actually higher than US population Also maybe women are lying about weight or they are all very thin Self reported height Men reporting heights about 1.3 inches taller and women are reporting height about 1 inch taller Revealed Preference Standard assumption: if a user browses two profiles, w and w’, and send an email to user w but not w’, then the user prefers a match with w over a match with w’ Um(m,w)expected utility a male m user gets from potential match with woman w Vm(m) value of the man’s outside option Value of his time with himself, etc. Then send an email if and only if Um(m,w)=>vm(m) Basic Regression Model Probability of receiving an email Emailij=betaattractivenessj+ui+eij Probability of receiving an email
Economics of Dating
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Strong relationship between being attractive and receiving a first contact email This is true regardless o the attractiveness of the browser, “ogre” always thinks he has a shot Men are more responsive to contacts: median man (attractiveness) hears back with a 35% chance. Median woman hears back with a 60% chance. More attractive men and women are pickier: least attractive men and women are 23 times more likely to respond Mate Preference Estimation Details of the regression model is beyond the scope of this class. Y=a+b* attribute+e Y= number of unsolicited email Attribute= dummy variable for some attribute Looks value in market for that Education Penalty to be over educated Value of b is the premium associated for having that attribute Strongest predictors of mate preference: mostly attractiveness for both men and women, followed by ethnicity, income and education Dating goals: Bottom line results: men who are seeking anything but a long term relationship receive far fewer emails. This is not always true for women. “seeking an occasional love/ casual relationship” women 17% more emails (premium) men 41% fewer emails (penalty) no surprise based on stereotypes Height matters in opposite directions for men and women Men 6’3” vs. 5’7”: 65% more emails (premium) Women 6’3” vs 5’5”: 42% emails (penalty) Income strongly predicts the success of men
Economics of Dating Relative to incomes below $50,000 Income> $250,000: 34151% more emails from women Income marginally related to success of women Relative incomes below $50,000 $50100k do slightly better >100k no real difference gender differences in preference!! Educational attainment Women prefer men of equivalent education Men with MA get 48% fewer emails from women with HS Men with MA get 82% more email from women with MA Men tend to avoid women with more education altogether Occupation: Premiums for men: legal profession, fire fighter, military, health Occupation for women has no effect for men March 1, 2011 Dating preferences differ among genders. Racial preferences 38% women prefer match of same race 18% men prefer the same race whites: 49% women, 22% of men prefer white black 30% black, 8% men prefer black this doesn’t not include if they don’t care Regression Results
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Economics of Dating
04/15/2011
Black/Hispanic men receive ½ as many emails from white women This is fully controlling for other stuff (income, education, etc) No strong effect for men either way Men don’t care Economic Trade Offs How can one with bad attributes compensate for those bad attributes in order to be more desirable? A man in the bottom decile of attractiveness needs to make $186,000/ year more to be successful as a man in the top decile women cannot make up for their poor looks at all (men don’t value their incomes enough) Height: Man who is 5’6” needs an additional $175,000/ year to be as desirable as a man 6’ tall who makes $62,500/year Ethnicity African American man needs $154,000/year more than a white man to be as successful with a white woman Hispanic ma needs $77,000/year more than a white man Asian man needs $247,000/ year more than a white man Evidence of racism? Strong preference Question on the final exam about this paper!!!!! Baseball game by self: $100 $100 happiness/ satisfaction for going to the baseball game how much money would someone have to pay you to not go Ticket: $10 Rent: 10010=$90 Willing to pay PH, but play P0 therefore the surplus= rent PH=100
Economics of Dating
04/15/2011
P0=10 Game with Southern Belle: $150 Value the game a little bit more because nice conversation, she might wear something pretty, have a better time Tickets: 10+10= $20 Nachos: $7 Rent: 150207= $123 Prefer this option over going by yourself to the game Psychological Pain and Suffering from Watching American Idol: $35 This is a cost Therefore going to go to the game by himself because 12335= $88 This is the breaking point The exam problem will be exactly like this. Be able to calculate a rent.
Markets in Action
04/15/2011
Partial Equilibrium Analysis: examines a single market in isolation and ignores feedback effects from other markets Ceterus paribus Hold everything else constant Specific market is small relative to entire economy Most of microeconomics 1 shift/ change at a time General Equilibrium Analysis: study all markets together Government Controlled Prices market sets equilibrium disequilibrium prices price is set above equil, some sellers are unable to find buyers price is set below equil, some buyers are unable to find sellers with administered prices, the quantity is determined by the lesser of quantity demanded and supplied If govn’t forces higher price, there will be excess supply in the market How much is bought/ sold is determined by the line that is interested first by the horizontal price line Prices above P0 the demand curve determines the quantity Price below P0 the supply curve determines the quantity A Binding Price Floor The price floor institutes a minimum price that must be charge in the market (ex. Minimum wage) “binding”: the minimum price is set above the market price excess supply in the market and the quantity yielded in the market is less than what the market would have produced without the price floor there still is competition in this market at higher price, some people will drop out of the market inability for buyers and sellers to get together at an equilibrium price
Markets in Action
04/15/2011
fewer units are sold who is worse off? Who is better off? A Price Ceiling and BlackMarket Pricing Price ceiling, but consumers are willing to pay the higher price perfect for setting a black market Sellers drop out of market Fall in the amount that is bought and sold Determined by the first curve intersected Rent control in large cities Prescription drugs Impose a maximum possible price in the market Who is better off? Why Price Controls? Typically, a government has one or more of three main objectives in imposing a price control To restrict production Kind of like an excise tax To keep specific prices down Distributive purposes To satisfy notions of equilibrium in consumption Opportunities for black markets Price ceiling One guy is willing to pay a high amount for a product, but because fewer suppliers he can’t get it Someone who has it can sell it for a higher price Buy a bunch at a low price and sell it for a profit Rent Controls: a case study of price ceilings Binding rent controls are specific form of price ceiling
Markets in Action
04/15/2011
effects Housing shortage Alternative allocation schemes in black markets Illegal schemes like “entrance fees” There are markets where entrance fees are not illegal Lsu football games for example Pricing tickets below the market price Also there is a different market for each section in tiger stadium Opportunities for kick backs Landlords aren’t supposed to accept cash under the table The short run and long run effects of rent controls Rent control causes housing shortages to worsen in the long run Long run is more elastic than the short run Supply is inelastic in short run Number of apartments stays the same Short run nobody goes without a house Long run housing shortages Landlord bulldozes and uses land for something else Change to commercial spaces Price controls on prescription drugs could be disastrous It is possible to intervene in a market and have no dead weight loss Markets where demand or supply is really/completely inelastic (almost) impose price ceilings and price floors to redistribute the wealth March 10, 2011 1. If a binding price ceiling is in place and if the demand for the product shifts outward, one consequence could be:
Markets in Action
04/15/2011
A. the quantity exchanged would increase Quantity exchanged doesn’t change at all B. an increase in the amount of excess supply No excess supply in this market C. the quantity exchanged would remain constant D. the quantity exchanged would decrease E. a decrease in the amount of excess demand Increase in the amount of excess demand Answer: C Price ceiling low price consumers demand a lot but suppliers on supply a little Excess demand in the market Demand curve shifts creating an increase in excess demand 2. Suppose the demand for eggs is inelastic and that the marketclearing price is $1.50 per dozen. Now suppose the government imposes a minimum price of $2.00 per dozen. Why might the government implement such a policy? A. to decrease tax revenues from egg farmers We don’t know anything about taxes in this market, but if they make more revenue they will probably pay more in taxes B. to increase the incomes of egg farmers Rectangle is bigger therefore total revenue for farmers increases C. to make consumers better off Consumers are paying more D. to reduce excess supply in the egg market This will actually cause excess supply E. to increase excess demand in the egg market There is no excess demand here Answer: B
Consumer Behavior Marginal Utility and Consumer Choice
04/15/2011
Consumer Behavior
04/15/2011
Utility: the satisfaction or wellbeing that a consumer receives from consuming some good or service Theory of consumer behavior is based on the idea of utility maximization Total utility: the total satisfaction resulting from the consumption of a given commodity by a consumer Marginal utility: the additional satisfaction obtained by a consumer from consuming one additional unit of a commodity Diminishing Marginal Utility The law of diminishing marginal utility is the central hypothesis of utility theory The utility that any consumer derives from successive units of a particular product is assumed to diminish as total consumption of the product increases (if the consumption of all other products is unchanged) Marginal utility falls as the level of consumption rises Marginal utility is calculated as the difference between the total utility at two different points Soda Example As she increases her consumption, her satisfaction increases but at a decreasing rate. Her satisfaction could actually decrease. Marginal utility can increase over time but it has to decrease at some point Maximizing Utility Consumers must decide how to adjust their expenditure to maximize total utility A utility maximizing consumer allocates expenditures so that the utility obtained from the last dollar spent on each product is equal An example? Consider a consumer whose utility from the last dollar spent on Coke is more than from the last dollar spent on burritos. She could increase her total utility b switching a dollar of expenditure on burritos to Coke and continuing until the marginal utility per dollar spent on Coke equals the marginal utility per dollar spent on burritos For two products, X and Y, the utilitymaximizing condition is: MUx/px=MUy/py Bang for your buck Mu= marginal utility P= price/your buck This is at equilibrium
Consumer Behavior
04/15/2011
If there is a change, you reallocate your money and change your consumption Example of the Consumer’s Decision The last unit of X increases utility by 20 and costs $2, its marginal utility per dollar is 10 (=20/2) The last unit of Y increases utility by 20 and costs $1, its marginal utility per dollar is 10 (=10/1) These ratios are the same More expensive goods better give you more bang for your buck. They should be expensive for a reason and give you a lot of marginal utility Income and Substitution Effects of Price Changes A change in price has 2 distinct effects Alters relative prices Changes consumers’ real income The Substitution Effect Increases the quantity demanded of a good whose (relative) price has fallen and reduces the quantity demanded of a good whose (relative) price has increased The Income Effect For a normal good, the income effects leads consumers to buy more of a product that has fallen in price For an inferior good, the income effect is for consumers to buy fewer units when its price falls. 10% price reduction of gasoline vs. a 10% price reduction of coffee. For which would your income effect be larger? The Slope of the Demand Curve The overall effect of a price change is the combination of the income and substitution effects For a price increase: The substitution effect is to reduce quantity demanded The income effect could go either way Income and Substitution Effects of a Price Change Normal good: income and substitution effects work in the same direction
Consumer Behavior
04/15/2011
Most Inferior Goods: income effect only partially offsets the substitution effect A Few Inferior Goods: income effect outweighs the substitution effect An Interesting Application to Taxation The logic of breaking down a price change into separate income and substitution effects is not limited to the analysis of demand Supply of labor Supply of household savings Changes in wages and interest rates have both income and substitution effects What are the effects of cutting income taxes? Should we? What types of people? Indifference Curve At every point on the indifference curve, the utility level is the same. Literally the individual is indifferent between any bundle on that line. The slope of the tangent line tells you the marginal rate of substitution (MRS) between the goods. The MRS is the trade off at that particular point. MRS is different along that curved line. Rate at which you are willing to give up Y to consume more of what is on the X axis Rate at which you substitute out of Y onto X Each indifference curve represents a different level of utility. Higher utility levels move outward (to the right) If the indifference curve is very flat, preference for Y axis If the indifference curve is very steep, preference of X axis The shape of the indifference curve determines where it touches the budget line and therefore what bundle is the best Budget Line Every point on the budget line represents a different combination of goods that can be consumed by the same amount of money (budget) Higher budgets are represented by lines further out (to the right) Outside the line= unaffordable Slope of line= the ratio of the prices
Consumer Behavior
04/15/2011
Maximizing Choice Bring the Indifference Curve and budget line together Best bundle with given budget Want to be on the highest indifference curve possible Can’t spend too much, but don’t want to leave money on the table Sweet spot: where the IC is tangent (perfectly touches) the budget line March 22, 2011 3. If the prices of toffee bars and bags of cashews are both $1 and this consumer has $7 per week to spend on these two snacks, how many of each will he/she purchase to maximize utility? Units Marginal Utility Total Utility Marginal Utility Total Utility (Toffee) (Cashews) 1 10 10 12 12 2 8 18 10 22 3 5 23 7 29 4 3 26 5 34 5 1 27 2 36 6 0 27 1 37 7 0 27 0 37 a. 1 toffee bar and 2 bags of candy b. ~~~need to look into the answer 4. If money income is reduced by half, and the prices of all goods consumed by the household are reduced by half, the household’s budget line will A. shift outward B. not change correct answer C. become flatter D. become steeper E. shift inward
Producers in the Short Run March 22, 2011
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Producers in the Short Run
04/15/2011
Goals of Firms 2 key assumptions firms are assumed to be profit maximizers each firm is assumed to be a single, consistent decision making unit CEO makes all of the decisions Production, Costs, and Profits Production Firms use 4 types of inputs for production Intermediate products Inputs provided directly by nature Inputs provided directly by people, such as labor services workers Inputs provided by the services of physical capital (machines) Trucks, desks Is it Socially Responsible to Maximizie Profits Basic premise of free markets: individuals and firms acting in their own self interest generate benefits for the society as a whole Don’t care about distribution, but the pie will be big Externalities Profit maximizing firms are not always the best judge of societies interests Ex. Pollution Governments decide the rules and firms strive for profits with those restrictions Firms can be as greedy as they want as long as they follow the rules of the game Production Function
Producers in the Short Run
04/15/2011
Production function relates inputs to outputs The technical relationship between the inputs that a firm uses and the outputs it produces Q=f(L,K) Q= output L=labor K= capital Production is a flow: it is a number of units per period of time Output and total product are the same Q=TP Costs and Profits Accounting Profits=RevenuesExplicit Costs Omit idea of implicit costs Economic Profits=Accounting Profits Implicit Costs Not just explicit costs (rent, pay for workers, cost of loan) Implicit costs: opportunity costs Opportunity cost of the owner’s time and capital You could have invested that capital in the stock market or another business There is a risk involved in starting up a business Accountants do calculate economic profits Includes both implicit and explicit costs Economic Profits Pure profit Difference between revenues received from the sale of output and the opportunity cost of the inputs used to make the output If economic profit is positive, the owner’s capital is earning more than it could in its next best alternative use
Producers in the Short Run
04/15/2011
Using resources in a good way Incentives to enter that industry with positive economic profits Adam Smith’s invisible hand Explicit costs: wages, salaries, rent, intermediate inputs, interest on loan, depreciation Implicit costs: opportunity cost of owner’s time, opportunity cost of owner’s capital (risk free return, risk premium) ProfitMaximizing Output A firm’s (economic) profit is equal to total revenues minus total (economic) costs Pi=TRTC TR and TC are a function of output Time Horizons for Decision Making Short run: period of time in which some of the firm’s factors of production are fixed Capital is fixed in short run typically Fixed factor: an input whose quantity cannot be changed in the short run Variable factor: an input whose quantity can be changed over the period of time under The Long Run Long run length of time over which all of the firm’s factors of production can be varied, but its technology is fixed The very long run: length of time over which all of the firm’s factors of production and its technological possibilities can change Production in the Short Run Total, Average, and Marginal Prodcuts Total Product (TP): total amount of output that is produced during a given period of time Labor Vs. TP increase number of workers you can increase more and more very quickly. As you keep hiring more workers they get in each others’ ways. First group of workers hired are really productive, but then they become less and less productive. Inflection point where the marginal product curve begins to fall Average Product (AP): total product divided by the number of units of the variable factor used to product it (usually throught of as labor (L)) AP=TP/L
Producers in the Short Run
04/15/2011
Labor Vs. AP: increases for a while and then reaches a maximum and begins to fall As soon as the marginal product curve gets below the average product curve, the average product curve begins to fall. While the MP curve is above the AP curve, the AP curve is increasing/ rising MP curve and AP curve intersect at the point of diminishing average product The slope of the TP curve changes in relation to the peak o the MP curve. The peak of the AP curve relative to the MP curve. Marginal Product: additional units of output that each worker can produce. (Change in TP/L=MP) Maximum: point of diminishing marginal product Workers are producing output, but less and less and less Once MP starts to fall, output (TP) begins to slow down Intution: think about hw and avg hw score If first hw is a 50%. Avg is 50%. If each consecutive hw score is better than the last, your average will increase. As long as you keep doing better, your average score is rising. If you get the same score on a hw, your average won’t change. If you do worse, your average score will be brought down. Relates to MP and AP March 24, 2011 Costs in the Short Run Defining Short Run Costs TC=TFC+TVC TC= total cost TFC= total fixed cost TVC= total variable cost ATC=AFC+AVC ATC= Average Total Cost AFC=Average Fixed Cost
Producers in the Short Run
04/15/2011
AVC=Average Variable Cost Divide TFC/Q=AFC etc. Marginal Cost (MC): increase in total cost resulting from increasing the output by one unit MC= change in TC/change in Q Fixed costs don’t vary with output, the only part of TC that changes is the variable cost We have ten machines, we pay the same amount for those machines even if we don’t use them Fixed capital and variable labor table Input: capital (K) and labor (L) Output: (Q) Rises with increase in L Total Costs Fixed Cost: don’t change, cost of machines Variable cost: depends on number of workers Total: fixed + variable Average Costs AFC=TFC/Q AVC=TFC/Q ATC=TC/Q+=AFC+AVC Total, Average and Marginal Cost Curves ATC=AVC+AFC (a vertical summation) AFC declines steadily as output rises Spreading the overhead Driven to zero Fixed Cost Curve
Producers in the Short Run
04/15/2011
Starts high and continues to decline AFC is driven to zero Marginal Cost Curve will cross average cost curve Short Run Cost Curves Falling AFC tends to push down ATC AFC is continuing to fall (fixed) Rising MC (and thus AVC) tends to push up ATC At some point AVC begins to rise At some point the second effect overcomes the first effect and aTC begins to rise Why Ushaped cost curves? Each additional worker adds the same amount to total cost, but a different amount to total output Eventually diminishing AP of the variable factor implies eventually rising AVC AVC is at its minimum when AP reaches its maximum Eventually diminishing MP of the variable factor implies eventually rising MC MC reaches its minimum when MP reaches its maximum Capacity The level of output that corresponds to the minimum shortrun ATC Largest output that can be produced without encountering rising average cost per unit A firm that is producing at an output less than the point of minimum ATC= excess capacity An Increase in Variable Input Prices Price of labor (wage) increases Increased price of labor filters into the cost curves and is represented by a vertical shift upwards Practice Problems on Moodle Output Marginal Average Cost Variable Cost 50 60 140 70 45 115 90 35 95 110 30 80 130 35 65 150 60 60 170 105 65 190 180 75 210 230 90 230 290 110
Producers in the Short Run
04/15/2011
6.Suppose there are no fixed costs. The firm reaches its capacity level of output when its output is equal to: 150 units 5. Consider a basketproducing firm with fixed capital. If the firm can produced 36 baskets per day with 3 workers and 44 baskets per day with 4 workers, then we know that which of the following is true? A. the marginal product of the fourth worker is 8 correct B. the firm has passed the point of diminishing marginal productivity C. the firm has passed the point of diminishing average productivity D. The marginal product is below the average product E. All of the above Exam 4050 questions small scantron small calculator equation sheet will be uploaded to moodle ch. 5, 6, 7 not cumulative problem solving, analytical, calculations economics of dating will be on the final, not this exam
Producers in the Long Run
04/15/2011
March 31, 2011 The Long Run: No Fixed Factors All inputs are variable Profit maximizing firms strive for technical efficiency Maximize output with a given number of inputs Technical efficiency is not enough to maximize profits. The firm must choose among the technically options to produce a given level of output at the lowest cost Profit maximization and cost minimization For any level of output, maximizing profits requires firms to choose their inputs to minimize total costs A firm is not minimizing costs if it is possible to substitute one factor for another to keep output constant while reducing total cost Can it substitute from workers to machines while reducing the cost? Firm should always substitute one factor for another factor as long as the marginal product of one factor per dollar spent on it is greater than the marginal product of the other factor per dollar spent on it Long Run Cost Minimization MPk/pk=MPL/pL K= capital L=labor MP= marginal product P= price Example of Cost Minimization MPk=40 Pk=10 MPL=20 pL=2 MPk/pk=40/10=4 We need this to get bigger
Producers in the Long Run
04/15/2011
MPL/pL20/2=10 We need this to get smaller Firm should reduce cost of producing its current level of output by using more labor and less capital Another Interpretation of Cost Minimization Isoquant curve similar to indifference curve Isocost curve similar to budget line Principle of Substitution Firms adjust the quantities of factors in response to changing relative factor prices Plays a central role in resource allocation because it relates the way in which individual firms respond to changes in relative factor prices Long Run Cost Curves When all factors of production can be varied, consider the leastcost method of producing any level of output The long run average cost (LRAC) curve shows the lowest possible curve of producing each level of output when all inputs can be varied LRAC curve separates unattainable and attainable cost levels, given technology and factor prices LRAC is usually Ushaped “SaucerShaped” Long Run Average Cost Curve AVC is at minimum when AP is at maximum AVC fall as long as AP is rising Increasing returns Costs are decreasing AP of inputs is really high At the point of increasing returns: if you double your inputs, the outputs will more than double Cost per unit goes down Decreasing returns Costs are increasing
Producers in the Long Run
04/15/2011
Double inputs, outputs will go up by less than double Double workers and machines, outputs increase by less than double Constant returns to scale If you double inputs, the outputs will double Go up by same proportion 1st point: minimum efficient scale may not have a long stretch of constant returns therefore the point is the minimum efficient scale LRAC and SRATC Curves Each SRATC is tangent to the LRAC curve at the level of output for which the quantity of the fixed factor is optimal LRAC is lower than the SRATC except for one point where they are the same Long Run you can vary all the inputs You should at least be able to do better Shifts in LRAC Curves Changes in technology and factor prices cause the longrun cost curve to shift A rise in factor prices shifts the LRAC curve upward A fall in factor pries or a technological improvements shifts the LRAC curve downward SRATC=AVC+AFC=W*L+AFC LRAC=LRAVC+LRAFC=LRAVC LRAFC=0 Technological Change Endogenous responses to changing economic signals 2 kinds of changes in the very long run new techniques: process innovation how we produce our stuff
Producers in the Long Run improved inputs more productive machines train higher education workers train them to be more efficient new products: product innovation produce something better ex. iPad 2 is better than the old one, but they are charging the same price Isoquant Curve Indifference Curve IsoCost Curve Budget Line MRS=MUx/MUy MRTS=MPL/MPK slope of the indifference curve slope of the isoquant curve MUx/MUy=Px/Py MPL/MPK=PL/PK slope of the budget line slope of the isocost curve **Producer problem looks like consumer problem difference: what do we do when prices change when price goes up, isoquant curves in, but shift output out
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Isoquant Analysis
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March 31, 2011 An Isoquant X axis=labor Y axis= capital Similar to an indifference curve All the different possible combinations of labor and capital that a firm can use to produce a certain level of output A lot of labor and little capital A lot of capital and little labor Rate at which we can add capital and give up workers An Isoquant Map Fixed level of output The isoquants shift around just like the indifference curves (fixed level of utility) Further out to the right= higher levels of ouput Isocost Lines Isocost curves (given level of total input cost) shift around like the budget line (fixed income to spend) Points on a particular line represent different combinations of inputs that cost the same total amount Machines vs. workers You can tell which costs more etc (like cookies vs. milk) Cost Minimization Profit maximization: slope of the isoquant is equal to the slope of the isocost curve Tangency point Cost minimizing Hold Q constant conditional on Q Fixing the isoquant curve and finding the isocost curve Find the tangency point Give the slope of the isocost curve, which input is more expensive?
Isoquant Analysis
04/15/2011
The Effects of a Change in Factor Prices on Costs and Factor Proportions Price of labor increases and price of capital stays the same Isocost curve rotates in new isocost curve with a different slope but representing the same total cost Slope represents relative prices/ change in prices We can shift isocost curve out to point where it was before it will give us the cost of having the original quantities of L and K with the new prices Think about holding output constant and minimizing cost Find the appropriate isocost curve that is tangent
Competitive Markets
04/15/2011
April 7, 2011 Market Structure and Firm Behavior Competitive Market Structure Market power: the influence that individual firms have on market prices The less power an individual firm has to influence the market price, the more competitive is that market’s structure Competitive Behavior Degree to which individual firms actively vie with each other for business Examples GM and Toyota: engage in competitive behavior, but market is not competitive Two wheat farmers do not engage in competitive behavior but they exist in a very competitive market The Significance of Market Structure The demand curve faced by an individual firm may be different from the demand curve for the industry as a whole Market structure plays a central role in determining the efficiency of the market The Theory of Perfect Competition The assumptions of perfect competition All firms sell a homogenous product Customers know the product and each firm’s price Each firm reaches its minimum LRAC at a level of output that is small relative to the industry’s total output Firms are price takers Firms are free to exit and enter the industry The Demand Curve for a Competitive Industry and for One Firm in the Industry If the firm charges any price higher than the equilibrium price, there will be no demand A competitive firm’s demand curve is perfectly elastic If the firm charges less than the equilibrium price, they would make less money. Therefore, no incentive.
Competitive Markets
04/15/2011
Revenue Total Revenue (TR)=p*Q Average Revenue (AR)=(p*Q)/Q=p Marginal Revenue (MR)=Change in TR/ Change in Q For a perfectly competitive firm: AR=MR=p Revenues for a Price Taking Firm The firm is increasing output (supply), but price does not change Fundamentally different than thinking of this like a supply curve The firm is a price taker in the market Short Run Decisions Rules for all profit maximizing firms Should the firm produce at all A firm should produce only if at some level of output, price exceeds AVC We need to at least be able to pay for our work force Negative Profits and the Firm’s ShutDown Decision Production Decision The shut down price, the firm can just cover its average variable cost, and so is indifferent between producing and producing How much should the firm produce? When p?AVC, firm doesn’t shut down To maximizing profits, the firm chooses the output when MR=MC. But for a competitive firm, MR=p The rule: choose output where p=MC Profit Maximiziation for a Competitive Firm Maximize the spread between TR and TC curves Long Run Decisions
Competitive Markets
04/15/2011
Entry and Exit If existing firms have positive economic profits, new firms have an incentive to enter the industry If existing firms have zero profits, there are no incentives for new firms to enter, and no incentives for existing firms to exit If existing firms have economic losses, there is an incentive for existing firms to exit the industry The Effect of New Entrants Affected By Positive Profits Entry leads to an increase in supply and a reduction in price Profits when price is p0* lead to entry Firms will enter and try to take those profits, shifting the supply curve out. This causes equilibrium price to fall. A biddging war. Competition in market drives the price down Competition till all profits are gone Firms taking economic losses will exit the market Competition in market will fall causing prices to rise Firms continue to exit the market until profits are back to zero Sunk Costs and the Speed of Exit The process of exit is not always quick and is sometimes painfully slow for the loss making firms in the industry This process doesn’t happen over night April 12, 2011 Long Run Equilibrium No longer incentive for entry or exit (or expansion) All existing firms: Must be maximizing their profits Are earning zero economic profits Short Run Vs. Long Run Profit Maximization for a Competitive Firm
Competitive Markets
04/15/2011
In the LR, the firm cannot be maximizing profits at output less than Qm Firm will continue to expand and increase production as long as it minimizes its cost of production A Typical Competitive Firm When the Industry Is In Long Run Equilibrium Changes in Technology Reduces the costs for newly built plants New plants will earn economic profits, expand industry output and drive down price Price will fall until it is equal to the SRATC of the new plants. Old plants may continue, but will earn losses. They eventually exit. Oldest plants just barely cover their AVC, but will exit with any further reduction in price. Slightly more advanced plants still take losses but are able to pay down some of the fixed cost since the price exceeds the variable cost The industry will not expand output so far that the newest plants take losses
Monopoly, Cartels and Price Discrimination
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April 12, 2011 A single price monopolist Cost and revenue in the short run Monopolist faces the (downward sloping) market demand curve If the monopolist charges the same price for all units sold, its total revenue (TR) is: TR=P*Q Only time total revenue equation is different: price discrimination Average and Marginal Revenue AR=TR/Q=(p*Q)/Q=p Marginal revenue is the revenue resulting from the sale of an additional unit of production In perfectly competitive case: MR=p MR is constant MR=change in TR/change in Q The monopolist must reduce the price to increase sales therefore the MR curve is below the demand curve Demand curve is downward sloping therefore to sell more units, you must lower the price A Monopolist’s Average and Marginal Revenue Monopolist chooses its price and faces the entire market demand curve To sell more, the monopolist must lower the price it charges Short Run Profit Maximization for a Monompolist MR=MC to maximize profits Are Monopolists Good for Society? Intuition: there is no competition. It can charge a high price. There are different types of monopolies Legalized monopolies are regulated. Firm agrees to be a monopoly for the government and their price increases must be approved by politicians Is the market maximizing the size of the pie? Minimum dead weight loss? If you want to regulate the monopoly, force it to charge a socially optimum price (where ATC and D curves intersect)
Monopoly, Cartels and Price Discrimination Monopoly probably won’t be willing to accept this Amount bought and sold increases Monopolist is making zero profits no losses and no profits At least not taking any losses Consumer surplus increases Area above the price and below the demand curve Social optimal price isn’t necessarily a profit maximizing price
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