FARMING BEYOND THE FARM
FARMING BEYOND THE FARM Prepared by: Joel Salatin A farm in many ways is a macro-landscape design project. The topography, climate, and geology define land use. The more we can intersect forest, riparian, and open land, the more diversity we create. That offers checks and balances for plant and animal life. Multiple use infrastructure is as important as a diversified landscape. One of the biggest hurdles in modern industrial farming is the single-use, capital-intensive infrastructure that enslaves the next generation emotionally and economically to the previous generation's paradigms. The day an innovative child decides to abandon the silo (bankruptcy tube) and confinement dairy barn, Dad and Grandpa throw an apoplectic fit: "I worked all my life to build and pay for that barn. How dare you just walk away from it? In fact, we still owe $50,000 on it, so you'd better use it if you know what's good for you." By stacking complementary enterprises on the resource base, we can ratchet up income per acre and create opportunities for subsequent generations on the farm. The average age of the North American farmer is now about 60 years old. That means that roughly 75 percent of agriculture equity is controlled by people who have already done their life's most creative work. If young people can't get into farming, then the old people can't get out. Stacking enterprises enables the young people to get in by layering brand new salaries onto existing resources. This leverages the infrastructure as well. At Polyface, we produce salad bar beef, pastured broilers, pastured eggs, pigaearator pork, pastured turkeys, rabbits and forestry products. An on-farm band saw mill provides cheap material for construction projects and an additional income stream for the community's lumber needs. We move the cattle daily to a new paddock, tapping into the mobbing, moving, and mowing patterns of wild herbivore herds. Laying hens follow the cattle in their Eggmobiles, scratching through the cow pats, eating out the fly larvae, and incorporating the dung into the soil. Letting animals do the work completely changes the economics of the farm. Nothing is linear; instead, it's cyclical. When we feed hay in the winter, we use vertically movable feeder boxes and bed with wood wastes and old hay. We add corn to the anaerobic bedding pack, which ferments. In the spring we turn in the pigaerators. The hogs seek the fermented corn and oxygenate the pack, creating aerobic compost without machinery or petroleum. This technique offers the pigs a habitat that allows them to fully express their “pigness”. A culture that views its plants and animals as just so much inanimate protoplasmic structure to be manipulated however cleverly the human mind can conceive will view its citizens the same way--and other cultures. Respecting and honoring the “pigness” of the pig is a moral and ethical foundation for a civilized society. How we respect the least of these will determine how we respect the greatest of these.
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All the animals move to keep them on a fresh salad bar, and away from their soiled lounge areas. Our goal at Polyface is to make sure every animal ingests as much green material as possible because that is where the real taste, texture, and nutritional differences occur. We don't want dirt piles, dirt yards, or dirt runs. We want green grass, succulent and sweet, for maximum ingestion. By direct marketing, we capitalize on the superior quality of pasture-based meat and poultry. This gives us a loyal, appreciative clientele and quick response to what we're producing. Marketing is challenging enough to bring the best and brightest of our young people back to the farm. And that is how we farm for production, profit, and pleasure.
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WEEDS IN PASTURES - UNDERSTANDING WEED GROWTH AND PHYSIOLOGY Prepared by: Dwayne Summach (on behalf of Bruce Murray) What is a weed? Webster’s defines a weed as “any plant growing where it is not desired, especially a wild plant growing in ground that is under cultivation.” Purple loosestrife in a flower bed is a beautiful ornamental… when it is growing in the roadside ditch, proliferating until all other plant life is obliterated … it’s a weed. In pasture systems, many agriculturally significant weeds are considered part of the biodiversity. They are early warning indicators of management decisions which are leading to the development of bare ground or they may be the first species present on previously disturbed soil on its way back to its climax community. For the purposes of this presentation, let’s consider pasture weeds undesirable plants which aggressively reduce the amount of available, desirable forage in the perennial pasture sward. Environmental conditions dramatically affect which undesirable plants have an advantage over the desirable plants and subsequently flourish within a particular year, replenishing the seed bank or developing additional shoots/plants which increase the area influenced by the weeds. Weeds which flourish under dry environmental conditions are plants such as foxtail barley, kochia and deep rooted perennials like poplar. Wet environmental conditions favor the development of thistles, burdock, curl dock and leafy spurge. Weeds reduce the overall pasture production through a variety of means. Competition for light, nutrients and soil moisture reserves depletes the resources available to the pasture species. Anti-nutritive components and toxins may cause poor livestock performance or mortality. The weeds may simply taste bad or have a texture which inhibits livestock from ingesting adequate quantity. The weeds may be useful for grazing for a very specific period of time during the grazing season but reduce the overall ability of the pasture to produce adequate forage resources over the growing and grazing season. Then there is the stress weeds can create between neighbors. In order to get a foothold in a pasture, most weeds need some type of competitive advantage - weakened grass stand due to low fertility, overgrazing, flooding or drought. Once established, management needs to address the issue quickly or a pasture can become non productive in a very short time. It may be as simple as subdividing the pasture to provide the ability to rotationally graze or it may get as complicated as multiple control measures pesticide application, multi species grazing, mowing, and hand rouging. The effort required to remove or control undesirable plants will be greatly dependant upon the plant species, its’ biology, the level of infestation and the timeframe in which management requires the desired result.
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The majority of the presentation will focus on some particularly troublesome plants and their biological traits in order to assist producers in identifying, controlling and mitigating the effects of these plants on their operations. Foxtail barley is a clumping perennial grass which may be grazed in the early spring, rapidly heads out in late spring, producing awned seed which most livestock find unpalatable and will cause abscesses on their face. A single plant produces around 100 seeds which are viable for 1 to 2 years. These seeds germinate in shallow soil, often in the fall, and are particularly well adapted to saline areas, drowned out low lying areas, and bare ground in overgrazed pastures. Seeds are transported on the wind, and by sticking to animals Figure 1. Foxtail Barley
moving through the patch. Seedlings are relatively poor competitors, but once established, the perennial clump will out compete surrounding vegetation if left unchecked. Tillage of seedlings and repeated tillage of perennial plants can provide control. Unfortunately, this still leaves you with bare ground which doesn’t feed many cows and will require additional input (seed) to rectify the situation. Control via chemicals would be possible with glyphosate to spot spray individual clumps or to remove patches followed by additional reestablishment efforts. Assure may provide control of seedlings and suppression of perennials. In a high alfalfa content pasture, Kerb has been used with very positive results but at $40 to $50/acre, best if used on small patches to keep them from spreading. High density intensive grazing can be used as an alternative “tillage” provided desirable species are still present in the area. Canada thistle is a creeping rooted perennial that while not a prolific seed producer and very limited in its dispersion efforts, it is a very aggressive competitor for plant resources. Control is accomplished by reducing root reserve and preventing seed formation. This may be accomplished by repeated mowing, tillage, or animal impact. There are some chemicals registered for use in pasture on Canada thistle. Products such as 2,4-D, MCPA, Dicamba and escort provide suppression and have grazing restrictions ranging from none to 30 days. Control is provided by products such as Grazon, Restore, Tordon 22K, Clopyralid, glyphosate and Amitrol. Refer to the Crop Protection Guide for grazing restrictions.
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Figure 2. Canada Thistle
Perrenial sow thistle spreads much more readily via seed but patches also establish via the creeping root structure. Once sow thistle flowers, it produces viable seed which can be dispersed within 10 days. Control efforts need to concentrate on prevention of lowering and diminishing root reserves going into the fall. The relatively short dormancy of viable seed (1 to 2 years) allows the possibility of mechanical control via mowing (or grazing). Chemical control is provided by many of the same products used on Canada thistle. Refer to the Crop Protection Guide for control options and grazing restrictions.
Figure 3. Perennial sow thistle.
Figure 4. Nodding Thistle
Nodding thistle reproduces via seed only and is a biennial plant. Unfortunately it is a prolific seed producer - usually 4,000 to 10,000 seeds per plant but may be up to 100,000
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seeds per plant and may survive up to 10 years in the seed bank. Prevention of seed production via hand rouging, spot spraying of glyphosate or repeated mowing of individual plants is imperative due to the proficiency and longevity of seed production by this weed. There are no registered products in Canada for chemical control of this plant in pasture (though many thistle products are registered in other jurisdictions). Japanese Brome and Downy Brome have been confirmed in annual crop production fields in Manitoba. These extremely aggressive grass plants typically behave as winter annuals though they are capable of completing their annual life cycle in a single growing season as well. They thrive under competition and require relatively little bare ground to establish a foothold. To date there are a limited number of populations in Manitoba. These weeds are wide spread throughout the north western states including North Dakota, and are also established in Saskatchewan and Alberta. Downy brome (Bromus tectorum) also referred to as cheatgrass, cheat, Junegrass or d owny chess is an annual or more commonly a winter annual grass that infests winter annual crops (winter wheat, fall rye), pastures, road sides, forages, rangeland and annual crops. In western Canada it appears to grow mostly as a winter annual weed, germinating in the fall, over-wintering as a seedling and resuming growth in early spring. Being a winter annual weed, downy brome is a particular threat to producers who include winter annual crops such as winter wheat and fall rye regularly in their crop rotation and those who grow perennial stands such as forages, pastures or range land. Once established, downy brome can out-compete most other plant species. Under Manitoba field conditions downy brome usually germinates in the fall and over winters as a seedling, but it is able to germinate and grow throughout the growing season adding to the weedy nature of this plant. With its winter annual life cycle downy brome completes its life cycle very early in the season (May-June), giving it a competitive edge over most other plants. Because downy brome is an annual weed it reproduces and spreads by seed only. This weed is a prolific seed producer. Downy brome can produce up to 200 kg or 80,000,000 seeds per acre. Fortunately the seeds are generally short lived lasting only one or two years on the soil surface. If buried or placed under stress (drought, flooding etc.) the seed may go dormant, extending its longevity up to 5 years or more. In the seedlings stage downy brome can be distinguished from other grasses by its very hairy leaves. Downy brome has no auricles and a relatively large membranous ligule. The ligule has a very ragged appearance. The seedlings will generally appear after late summer or early fall precipitation, therefore producers need to be scouting fields for the seedlings at this time of year. In the spring the Figure 5. Downy brome seed.
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seedling will resume to growth very early in the season, shortly after the ground thaws. Downy brome plants grow from 15 to 60 cm high depending on growing conditions. The leaves and leaf sheath are light green in colour and are often very hairy. Leaf blades are flat and 5 to 15 cm long. Downy brome stems a re smooth with prominent nodes. The p lant can be heavily branched and may produce up to 30 tillers. The number of tillers will depend on growing conditions. This weed will begin producing heads in late April or early May, followed by flowering with in a week. Seeds will mature in mid to late June. With the development of the head, downy brome becomes relatively easy to identify. The inflorescen ce is a drooping panicle 5 to 15 cm long with a wild oat appearance. Each panicle consists of numerous spikelets each consisting of 5 - 8 flowers. Each florets or flower has a slender straight awn 1 to 2 cm in length. A closely related weed, Japanese Brome can be distinguished from downy brome at this stage by the length of the awns. Awns of Japanese brome are shorter than their attached florets whereas downy brome awns are longer than the flower or resulting seed. As the plant matures the panicle and stem will turn reddish-purple in color. At this stage the seeds are mature and will shatter soon. Downy brome has a shallow , dense fibrous root system that is extremely efficient at re moving water from the upper soil profile. In the northern US it has been suggested that the roots will continue to grow throughout much of the winter months, giving it an advantage over other plants in the early spring. This winter growth of the roots has not been confirmed under our harsh Manitoba winter temperatures. Prevention of introduction of downy brome is the best strategy for any producer. Do not import and plant seed from areas that have downy brome infestations. Planting of clean, certified forage and winter annual crop seed is essential. Producers who employ custom h arvesters need to ensure that the equipment is clean and free of downy brome seed before harvesting operations commence on their property. Seed dispersal via contaminated seed and equipment appears to be the primary mode of introduction into Manitoba. Manitoba producers need to become aware of this weed and to scout the ir land fo r early signs of infestation. Crop rotation is the most effective control strategy available to producers who already have this weed. If populations of downy brome are identified on a farm, producers would be well advised to stop growing winter annual crops in their rotation for a period of time. Perennial forages, pastures and rangeland infested with downy brome pose a more difficult situatio n. Perennial forages without herbicide options for this weed may have to b e removed from production and replaced with annual crops. Pastures and rangeland may be managed over time with proper grazing strategies and forage stand management. Mechani cal control of this weed has had mixed results. Early detection of a small patch w ill lend itself to hand pulling of small infestations. Producers will need to return to the site several times a year for a number of years to remove any late germinating plants.
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Mowing of downy brome has had limited success. Mowing operations have to commence before seed set and should be repeated at least every three weeks for the entire growing season. These operations need to be carried out for several years. Often this weed will re-initiate seed set below the level of the cutting blade, thus avoiding later mowing operations. Producers will have to be aware of this and adjust their cutting levels appropriately. Downy brome may be control with tillage. Tillage operations have to be aggressive and d eep (4-6”), in order to adequately bury existing seeds and uproot and desiccate existing plants. Because this is a fairly new weed to Canada and Manitoba, there are few herbicides registered for the control of downy brome. In contrast, there are a number of herbicides a ctives we routinely use in Canada registered for downy brome control in the USA. Most of these products are for use in fallow or annual crop situations. Post harvest and pre seed applications of glyphosate will control existing seedlings. Other products listed in the USA for in-crop use include: atrazine, Avadex, Fusion, imazamox (Adrenalin and Solo), Liberty, Poast, trifluralin, Select, Sencor, Sundance, and Venture. Additionally, research in the USA indicates that Assure II has good activity on this weed although it is not registered for this use. A number of products have been shown to suppress downy brome. These include a number of the remaining Group 1 and Group 2 herbicides. Producers need to refer to product labels and/or consult with the manufacturers of the above products for detailed application and control information. J apanese brome (Bromus japonicus) is an annual or more commonly a winter annual grass that infests winter annual crops (winter wheat, fall rye), pastures, road sides, forages, range land and annual crops. In western Canada it appears to grow mostly as a winter annual weed, germinating in the fall, over-wintering as a seedling and resuming growth in early spring. To date there are a limited number of populations in Manitoba. This weed is wide spread through out the north western states including North Dakota, and is a lso established in Saskatchewan, Ontario, and Alberta. Being a winter annual weed, Japanese brome is a particular threat to producers who include winter annual crops such as winter wheat and fall rye regularly in their crop rotation and those who grow perennial stands such as forages, pastures or range land. O nce established, Japanese brome will out-compete most other plant species. Under Manitoba field conditi ons Japanese brome usually germinates in the fall and overw inters as a seedling, but it is able to germinate and grow throughout the growing season adding to the weedy nature of this plant. With its winter annual life cycle Japanese brome completes its life cycle very early in the season (June-early July), giving it a competitive edge over most other plants.
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Because Japanese brome is an annual weed it reproduces and spreads by seed only. This weed is a prolific seed producer. Little is known about the long term viability of the seeds, although it is believed that they may remain viable in the seed bank for several years.
Figure 6. Japanese brome seed.
In the seedlings stage Japanese brome can be distinguished from other grasses by its very hairy leaves. Japanese brome has no auricles and a small membranous ligule, which has a very ragged appearance. The seedlings will generally appear after late summer or early fall precipitation, therefore p roducers ne ed to be scouting fields for the seedlings at this time of year. In the spring the seedling will resume growth very early in the season, shortly after the ground thaws. Producers will also want to reinitiate scouting fields at this time of the season. Japanese brome plants grow from 35 to 100 cm high depending on growing conditions. The leaves and leaf sheath are light green in colour and are often very hairy. Leaf blades are flat and 5 to 18 cm long. Japanese brome stems are smooth with prominent nodes. The leaf sheath surrounding the stem is covered with fine dense hairs. The plant can be heavily branched and may produce many tillers. The number of tillers will depend on g rowing conditi ons. This weed will begin producing heads in late April or early May, followed by flowering with in a week. Seeds will mature in mid to late June to early July. With the development of t he head, Japanese brome becomes relatively easy to identify. The inflorescenc e is a d rooping panicle 5 to 18 cm long with a wild oat appearance. Each panicle consists of 47
numerous spikelets each consisting of 6 - 10 flowers. Each florets or flower has a slender straight awn 0.5 to 1 cm in length. A closely related weed, downy brome can be distinguished from Japanese brome at this stage by the length of the awns. Awns of J apanese brome are shorter than their attached florets whereas downy brome awns are longer than the flower or resulting seed. Japanese brome has a shallow, dense fibrous root system that is extremely efficient at removing water from the upper soil profile. Management objectives for Japanese brome must begin with prevention. Prevention is the most important avoidance strategy for a producer to follow. Do not import and plant seed from areas that have Japanese brome infestations. Planting of clean, certified forage and winter annual crop seed is essential. Producers who employ custom harvesters need to ensure that the equipment is clean and free of Japanese brome seed before harvesting operations commence on their property. Seed dispersal via contaminated seed and equipment appears to be the primary mode of introduction into Manitoba. Manitoba producers need to become aware of this weed and to scout their land for early signs of infestation. Crop rotation is the most effective control strategy available to producers who already have this weed. If populations of Japanese brome are identified on a farm, producers would be well advised to stop growing winter annual crops in their rotation for an extended period of time. Perennial forages, pastures and rangeland infested with Japanese brome pose a more difficult situation. Perennial forages without herbicide options for this weed may have to be removed from production and replaced with annual crops. Pastures and rangeland may be managed over time with proper grazing strategies and forage stand management. Mechanical control of this weed has had mixed results. Early detection of a small patch will lend itself to hand pulling of small infestations. Producers will need to return to the site several times a year for a number of years to remove any late germinating plants. Mowing of Japanese brome has had limited success. Mowing operations have to commence before seed set and should be repeated often for the entire growing season. These operations need to be carried out for several years. Japanese brome may be control with tillage. Tillage operations have to be aggressive and deep (4-6”), in order to adequately bury existing seeds and uproot and desiccate existing plants. Because this weed is a relatively new in Canada there are no herbicides currently registered for the control of Japanese brome here. There are a number of products currently registered in the United States. Most of the following products with known activity on Japanese brome are for use in fallow or annual crop situations. Post harvest and pre-seed applic ations of glyphosate will control existing seedlings. Other products w ith activity on Japanese brome available for in-crop use in the USA include: atrazine, Avadex, imazamox (Adrenalin and Solo), Everest, Sencor, and trifluralin. A number of products have been shown to suppress Japanese brome. These include a number of the
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Group 1 and the remaining Group 2 herbicides. Producers need to refer to product labels and consult with the manufacturers of the above products for detailed application and control information.
Figure 7. Mature downy brome and Japanese brome panicles.
Leafy Spurge (Euphorbia esula) is a deep rooted perennial herb that stands 40 to 90cm tall, with lanceolate leaf blades which are oblong. The plant contains a milky sap which causes irritation of the mouth and intestinal linings if ingested, resulting in blisters, scours, weakness and even death and is the reason horses and cattle avoid the plant. Sheep and goats can eat leafy spurge and are one way of controlling this plant as it is not very resistant to grazing. Spurge is commonly associated with sandy and coarse textured soils, often in areas of recent disturbance. This plant when flowering, is easily identified by its lime yellow bracts that appear in early May thru June just prior to true flower development. Seeds mature in 10 to 13 days after fertilization and each plant can produce 250 seed that are 86% viable and remain so for up to 8 years. Germination can take place throughout the growing season and 10 days after germination the plant will be 1 inch tall with roots 4 inches long; it is extremely competitive! The plant can spread approximately 2 ft per year vegetatively and up to 30 ft by exploding seed pods. An infestation will double in area every 10 years, so while it may not seem important to treat a small infestation it really is the only economical way to control it at all. The roots of this plant and the waxy leaf cuticle are what make it so troublesome to control. Leafy spurge has a massive root system reaching depths of greater than 15 ft and spreading laterally greater than 15 ft. Each root can have 35 to 270 buds, each capable of making a new plant. Also a 1 inch fragment can develop into a new plant. Herbicides have trouble penetrating the waxy leaf and the root system is so extensive that translocation to all roots is often incomplete, leaving some roots to regenerate into new
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plants. Control of small patches with intense management of repeated applications of h erbicides such as, picloram (R), 2,4-D and dicamba, Grazon, or via repeated mowing before seed-set. Do not use biological controls, as they will not stop the spread of a small infestation because they are too slow acting. Introduced biological controls have not been entirely successful in western Canada as they seem to be outside of their climatic range. If leafy spurge is moving into your area contact the Leafy Spurge Stakeholders Group (204) 571-8551, for more information on control options. Regardless of which weed is present, make sure you have identified the plant correctly, are aware of the implications for your operation and plan to manage these plants so that they do not increase and reduce your pastures carrying capacity. Reluctance to address weed issues when the y a re a small isolated
patch because it isn’t important enough to warrant the time, effort or money is often rewarded with much greater requirements of time, effort and money.
Figure 8. Leafy Spurge
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All the animals move to keep them on a fresh salad bar, and away from their soiled lounge areas. Our goal at Polyface is to make sure every animal ingests as much green material as possible because that is where the real taste, texture, and nutritional differences occur. We don't want dirt piles, dirt yards, or dirt runs. We want green grass, succulent and sweet, for maximum ingestion. By direct marketing, we capitalize on the superior quality of pasture-based meat and poultry. This gives us a loyal, appreciative clientele and quick response to what we're producing. Marketing is challenging enough to bring the best and brightest of our young people back to the farm. And that is how we farm for production, profit, and pleasure.
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WEEDS IN PASTURES - UNDERSTANDING WEED GROWTH AND PHYSIOLOGY Prepared by: Dwayne Summach (on behalf of Bruce Murray) What is a weed? Webster’s defines a weed as “any plant growing where it is not desired, especially a wild plant growing in ground that is under cultivation.” Purple loosestrife in a flower bed is a beautiful ornamental… when it is growing in the roadside ditch, proliferating until all other plant life is obliterated … it’s a weed. In pasture systems, many agriculturally significant weeds are considered part of the biodiversity. They are early warning indicators of management decisions which are leading to the development of bare ground or they may be the first species present on previously disturbed soil on its way back to its climax community. For the purposes of this presentation, let’s consider pasture weeds undesirable plants which aggressively reduce the amount of available, desirable forage in the perennial pasture sward. Environmental conditions dramatically affect which undesirable plants have an advantage over the desirable plants and subsequently flourish within a particular year, replenishing the seed bank or developing additional shoots/plants which increase the area influenced by the weeds. Weeds which flourish under dry environmental conditions are plants such as foxtail barley, kochia and deep rooted perennials like poplar. Wet environmental conditions favor the development of thistles, burdock, curl dock and leafy spurge. Weeds reduce the overall pasture production through a variety of means. Competition for light, nutrients and soil moisture reserves depletes the resources available to the pasture species. Anti-nutritive components and toxins may cause poor livestock performance or mortality. The weeds may simply taste bad or have a texture which inhibits livestock from ingesting adequate quantity. The weeds may be useful for grazing for a very specific period of time during the grazing season but reduce the overall ability of the pasture to produce adequate forage resources over the growing and grazing season. Then there is the stress weeds can create between neighbors. In order to get a foothold in a pasture, most weeds need some type of competitive advantage - weakened grass stand due to low fertility, overgrazing, flooding or drought. Once established, management needs to address the issue quickly or a pasture can become non productive in a very short time. It may be as simple as subdividing the pasture to provide the ability to rotationally graze or it may get as complicated as multiple control measures pesticide application, multi species grazing, mowing, and hand rouging. The effort required to remove or control undesirable plants will be greatly dependant upon the plant species, its’ biology, the level of infestation and the timeframe in which management requires the desired result.
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The majority of the presentation will focus on some particularly troublesome plants and their biological traits in order to assist producers in identifying, controlling and mitigating the effects of these plants on their operations. Foxtail barley is a clumping perennial grass which may be grazed in the early spring, rapidly heads out in late spring, producing awned seed which most livestock find unpalatable and will cause abscesses on their face. A single plant produces around 100 seeds which are viable for 1 to 2 years. These seeds germinate in shallow soil, often in the fall, and are particularly well adapted to saline areas, drowned out low lying areas, and bare ground in overgrazed pastures. Seeds are transported on the wind, and by sticking to animals Figure 1. Foxtail Barley
moving through the patch. Seedlings are relatively poor competitors, but once established, the perennial clump will out compete surrounding vegetation if left unchecked. Tillage of seedlings and repeated tillage of perennial plants can provide control. Unfortunately, this still leaves you with bare ground which doesn’t feed many cows and will require additional input (seed) to rectify the situation. Control via chemicals would be possible with glyphosate to spot spray individual clumps or to remove patches followed by additional reestablishment efforts. Assure may provide control of seedlings and suppression of perennials. In a high alfalfa content pasture, Kerb has been used with very positive results but at $40 to $50/acre, best if used on small patches to keep them from spreading. High density intensive grazing can be used as an alternative “tillage” provided desirable species are still present in the area. Canada thistle is a creeping rooted perennial that while not a prolific seed producer and very limited in its dispersion efforts, it is a very aggressive competitor for plant resources. Control is accomplished by reducing root reserve and preventing seed formation. This may be accomplished by repeated mowing, tillage, or animal impact. There are some chemicals registered for use in pasture on Canada thistle. Products such as 2,4-D, MCPA, Dicamba and escort provide suppression and have grazing restrictions ranging from none to 30 days. Control is provided by products such as Grazon, Restore, Tordon 22K, Clopyralid, glyphosate and Amitrol. Refer to the Crop Protection Guide for grazing restrictions.
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Figure 2. Canada Thistle
Perrenial sow thistle spreads much more readily via seed but patches also establish via the creeping root structure. Once sow thistle flowers, it produces viable seed which can be dispersed within 10 days. Control efforts need to concentrate on prevention of lowering and diminishing root reserves going into the fall. The relatively short dormancy of viable seed (1 to 2 years) allows the possibility of mechanical control via mowing (or grazing). Chemical control is provided by many of the same products used on Canada thistle. Refer to the Crop Protection Guide for control options and grazing restrictions.
Figure 3. Perennial sow thistle.
Figure 4. Nodding Thistle
Nodding thistle reproduces via seed only and is a biennial plant. Unfortunately it is a prolific seed producer - usually 4,000 to 10,000 seeds per plant but may be up to 100,000
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seeds per plant and may survive up to 10 years in the seed bank. Prevention of seed production via hand rouging, spot spraying of glyphosate or repeated mowing of individual plants is imperative due to the proficiency and longevity of seed production by this weed. There are no registered products in Canada for chemical control of this plant in pasture (though many thistle products are registered in other jurisdictions). Japanese Brome and Downy Brome have been confirmed in annual crop production fields in Manitoba. These extremely aggressive grass plants typically behave as winter annuals though they are capable of completing their annual life cycle in a single growing season as well. They thrive under competition and require relatively little bare ground to establish a foothold. To date there are a limited number of populations in Manitoba. These weeds are wide spread throughout the north western states including North Dakota, and are also established in Saskatchewan and Alberta. Downy brome (Bromus tectorum) also referred to as cheatgrass, cheat, Junegrass or d owny chess is an annual or more commonly a winter annual grass that infests winter annual crops (winter wheat, fall rye), pastures, road sides, forages, rangeland and annual crops. In western Canada it appears to grow mostly as a winter annual weed, germinating in the fall, over-wintering as a seedling and resuming growth in early spring. Being a winter annual weed, downy brome is a particular threat to producers who include winter annual crops such as winter wheat and fall rye regularly in their crop rotation and those who grow perennial stands such as forages, pastures or range land. Once established, downy brome can out-compete most other plant species. Under Manitoba field conditions downy brome usually germinates in the fall and over winters as a seedling, but it is able to germinate and grow throughout the growing season adding to the weedy nature of this plant. With its winter annual life cycle downy brome completes its life cycle very early in the season (May-June), giving it a competitive edge over most other plants. Because downy brome is an annual weed it reproduces and spreads by seed only. This weed is a prolific seed producer. Downy brome can produce up to 200 kg or 80,000,000 seeds per acre. Fortunately the seeds are generally short lived lasting only one or two years on the soil surface. If buried or placed under stress (drought, flooding etc.) the seed may go dormant, extending its longevity up to 5 years or more. In the seedlings stage downy brome can be distinguished from other grasses by its very hairy leaves. Downy brome has no auricles and a relatively large membranous ligule. The ligule has a very ragged appearance. The seedlings will generally appear after late summer or early fall precipitation, therefore producers need to be scouting fields for the seedlings at this time of year. In the spring the Figure 5. Downy brome seed.
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seedling will resume to growth very early in the season, shortly after the ground thaws. Downy brome plants grow from 15 to 60 cm high depending on growing conditions. The leaves and leaf sheath are light green in colour and are often very hairy. Leaf blades are flat and 5 to 15 cm long. Downy brome stems a re smooth with prominent nodes. The p lant can be heavily branched and may produce up to 30 tillers. The number of tillers will depend on growing conditions. This weed will begin producing heads in late April or early May, followed by flowering with in a week. Seeds will mature in mid to late June. With the development of the head, downy brome becomes relatively easy to identify. The inflorescen ce is a drooping panicle 5 to 15 cm long with a wild oat appearance. Each panicle consists of numerous spikelets each consisting of 5 - 8 flowers. Each florets or flower has a slender straight awn 1 to 2 cm in length. A closely related weed, Japanese Brome can be distinguished from downy brome at this stage by the length of the awns. Awns of Japanese brome are shorter than their attached florets whereas downy brome awns are longer than the flower or resulting seed. As the plant matures the panicle and stem will turn reddish-purple in color. At this stage the seeds are mature and will shatter soon. Downy brome has a shallow , dense fibrous root system that is extremely efficient at re moving water from the upper soil profile. In the northern US it has been suggested that the roots will continue to grow throughout much of the winter months, giving it an advantage over other plants in the early spring. This winter growth of the roots has not been confirmed under our harsh Manitoba winter temperatures. Prevention of introduction of downy brome is the best strategy for any producer. Do not import and plant seed from areas that have downy brome infestations. Planting of clean, certified forage and winter annual crop seed is essential. Producers who employ custom h arvesters need to ensure that the equipment is clean and free of downy brome seed before harvesting operations commence on their property. Seed dispersal via contaminated seed and equipment appears to be the primary mode of introduction into Manitoba. Manitoba producers need to become aware of this weed and to scout the ir land fo r early signs of infestation. Crop rotation is the most effective control strategy available to producers who already have this weed. If populations of downy brome are identified on a farm, producers would be well advised to stop growing winter annual crops in their rotation for a period of time. Perennial forages, pastures and rangeland infested with downy brome pose a more difficult situatio n. Perennial forages without herbicide options for this weed may have to b e removed from production and replaced with annual crops. Pastures and rangeland may be managed over time with proper grazing strategies and forage stand management. Mechani cal control of this weed has had mixed results. Early detection of a small patch w ill lend itself to hand pulling of small infestations. Producers will need to return to the site several times a year for a number of years to remove any late germinating plants.
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Mowing of downy brome has had limited success. Mowing operations have to commence before seed set and should be repeated at least every three weeks for the entire growing season. These operations need to be carried out for several years. Often this weed will re-initiate seed set below the level of the cutting blade, thus avoiding later mowing operations. Producers will have to be aware of this and adjust their cutting levels appropriately. Downy brome may be control with tillage. Tillage operations have to be aggressive and d eep (4-6”), in order to adequately bury existing seeds and uproot and desiccate existing plants. Because this is a fairly new weed to Canada and Manitoba, there are few herbicides registered for the control of downy brome. In contrast, there are a number of herbicides a ctives we routinely use in Canada registered for downy brome control in the USA. Most of these products are for use in fallow or annual crop situations. Post harvest and pre seed applications of glyphosate will control existing seedlings. Other products listed in the USA for in-crop use include: atrazine, Avadex, Fusion, imazamox (Adrenalin and Solo), Liberty, Poast, trifluralin, Select, Sencor, Sundance, and Venture. Additionally, research in the USA indicates that Assure II has good activity on this weed although it is not registered for this use. A number of products have been shown to suppress downy brome. These include a number of the remaining Group 1 and Group 2 herbicides. Producers need to refer to product labels and/or consult with the manufacturers of the above products for detailed application and control information. J apanese brome (Bromus japonicus) is an annual or more commonly a winter annual grass that infests winter annual crops (winter wheat, fall rye), pastures, road sides, forages, range land and annual crops. In western Canada it appears to grow mostly as a winter annual weed, germinating in the fall, over-wintering as a seedling and resuming growth in early spring. To date there are a limited number of populations in Manitoba. This weed is wide spread through out the north western states including North Dakota, and is a lso established in Saskatchewan, Ontario, and Alberta. Being a winter annual weed, Japanese brome is a particular threat to producers who include winter annual crops such as winter wheat and fall rye regularly in their crop rotation and those who grow perennial stands such as forages, pastures or range land. O nce established, Japanese brome will out-compete most other plant species. Under Manitoba field conditi ons Japanese brome usually germinates in the fall and overw inters as a seedling, but it is able to germinate and grow throughout the growing season adding to the weedy nature of this plant. With its winter annual life cycle Japanese brome completes its life cycle very early in the season (June-early July), giving it a competitive edge over most other plants.
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Because Japanese brome is an annual weed it reproduces and spreads by seed only. This weed is a prolific seed producer. Little is known about the long term viability of the seeds, although it is believed that they may remain viable in the seed bank for several years.
Figure 6. Japanese brome seed.
In the seedlings stage Japanese brome can be distinguished from other grasses by its very hairy leaves. Japanese brome has no auricles and a small membranous ligule, which has a very ragged appearance. The seedlings will generally appear after late summer or early fall precipitation, therefore p roducers ne ed to be scouting fields for the seedlings at this time of year. In the spring the seedling will resume growth very early in the season, shortly after the ground thaws. Producers will also want to reinitiate scouting fields at this time of the season. Japanese brome plants grow from 35 to 100 cm high depending on growing conditions. The leaves and leaf sheath are light green in colour and are often very hairy. Leaf blades are flat and 5 to 18 cm long. Japanese brome stems are smooth with prominent nodes. The leaf sheath surrounding the stem is covered with fine dense hairs. The plant can be heavily branched and may produce many tillers. The number of tillers will depend on g rowing conditi ons. This weed will begin producing heads in late April or early May, followed by flowering with in a week. Seeds will mature in mid to late June to early July. With the development of t he head, Japanese brome becomes relatively easy to identify. The inflorescenc e is a d rooping panicle 5 to 18 cm long with a wild oat appearance. Each panicle consists of 47
numerous spikelets each consisting of 6 - 10 flowers. Each florets or flower has a slender straight awn 0.5 to 1 cm in length. A closely related weed, downy brome can be distinguished from Japanese brome at this stage by the length of the awns. Awns of J apanese brome are shorter than their attached florets whereas downy brome awns are longer than the flower or resulting seed. Japanese brome has a shallow, dense fibrous root system that is extremely efficient at removing water from the upper soil profile. Management objectives for Japanese brome must begin with prevention. Prevention is the most important avoidance strategy for a producer to follow. Do not import and plant seed from areas that have Japanese brome infestations. Planting of clean, certified forage and winter annual crop seed is essential. Producers who employ custom harvesters need to ensure that the equipment is clean and free of Japanese brome seed before harvesting operations commence on their property. Seed dispersal via contaminated seed and equipment appears to be the primary mode of introduction into Manitoba. Manitoba producers need to become aware of this weed and to scout their land for early signs of infestation. Crop rotation is the most effective control strategy available to producers who already have this weed. If populations of Japanese brome are identified on a farm, producers would be well advised to stop growing winter annual crops in their rotation for an extended period of time. Perennial forages, pastures and rangeland infested with Japanese brome pose a more difficult situation. Perennial forages without herbicide options for this weed may have to be removed from production and replaced with annual crops. Pastures and rangeland may be managed over time with proper grazing strategies and forage stand management. Mechanical control of this weed has had mixed results. Early detection of a small patch will lend itself to hand pulling of small infestations. Producers will need to return to the site several times a year for a number of years to remove any late germinating plants. Mowing of Japanese brome has had limited success. Mowing operations have to commence before seed set and should be repeated often for the entire growing season. These operations need to be carried out for several years. Japanese brome may be control with tillage. Tillage operations have to be aggressive and deep (4-6”), in order to adequately bury existing seeds and uproot and desiccate existing plants. Because this weed is a relatively new in Canada there are no herbicides currently registered for the control of Japanese brome here. There are a number of products currently registered in the United States. Most of the following products with known activity on Japanese brome are for use in fallow or annual crop situations. Post harvest and pre-seed applic ations of glyphosate will control existing seedlings. Other products w ith activity on Japanese brome available for in-crop use in the USA include: atrazine, Avadex, imazamox (Adrenalin and Solo), Everest, Sencor, and trifluralin. A number of products have been shown to suppress Japanese brome. These include a number of the
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Group 1 and the remaining Group 2 herbicides. Producers need to refer to product labels and consult with the manufacturers of the above products for detailed application and control information.
Figure 7. Mature downy brome and Japanese brome panicles.
Leafy Spurge (Euphorbia esula) is a deep rooted perennial herb that stands 40 to 90cm tall, with lanceolate leaf blades which are oblong. The plant contains a milky sap which causes irritation of the mouth and intestinal linings if ingested, resulting in blisters, scours, weakness and even death and is the reason horses and cattle avoid the plant. Sheep and goats can eat leafy spurge and are one way of controlling this plant as it is not very resistant to grazing. Spurge is commonly associated with sandy and coarse textured soils, often in areas of recent disturbance. This plant when flowering, is easily identified by its lime yellow bracts that appear in early May thru June just prior to true flower development. Seeds mature in 10 to 13 days after fertilization and each plant can produce 250 seed that are 86% viable and remain so for up to 8 years. Germination can take place throughout the growing season and 10 days after germination the plant will be 1 inch tall with roots 4 inches long; it is extremely competitive! The plant can spread approximately 2 ft per year vegetatively and up to 30 ft by exploding seed pods. An infestation will double in area every 10 years, so while it may not seem important to treat a small infestation it really is the only economical way to control it at all. The roots of this plant and the waxy leaf cuticle are what make it so troublesome to control. Leafy spurge has a massive root system reaching depths of greater than 15 ft and spreading laterally greater than 15 ft. Each root can have 35 to 270 buds, each capable of making a new plant. Also a 1 inch fragment can develop into a new plant. Herbicides have trouble penetrating the waxy leaf and the root system is so extensive that translocation to all roots is often incomplete, leaving some roots to regenerate into new
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plants. Control of small patches with intense management of repeated applications of h erbicides such as, picloram (R), 2,4-D and dicamba, Grazon, or via repeated mowing before seed-set. Do not use biological controls, as they will not stop the spread of a small infestation because they are too slow acting. Introduced biological controls have not been entirely successful in western Canada as they seem to be outside of their climatic range. If leafy spurge is moving into your area contact the Leafy Spurge Stakeholders Group (204) 571-8551, for more information on control options. Regardless of which weed is present, make sure you have identified the plant correctly, are aware of the implications for your operation and plan to manage these plants so that they do not increase and reduce your pastures carrying capacity. Reluctance to address weed issues when the y a re a small isolated
patch because it isn’t important enough to warrant the time, effort or money is often rewarded with much greater requirements of time, effort and money.
Figure 8. Leafy Spurge
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