Persuasion and Introduction to Research Methods
1
PSYC1030 NOTES FOR LECTURE CONTENT & LAB REPORT Introduction to Psychology: Developmental, Social & Clinical Psychology
Week 3: Persuasion and Introduction to Research Methods Topic 1: Persuasion • •
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Benefit = more able to defend yourself against others attempting to persuade YOU Strong persuasive message associated by positive cue i.e. attractor communicator o McGuire's Chain of Persuasion (1969) • Presentation • Attention • Comprehension • Yielding • Retention • Behaviour o Brock's Model of Cognitive Analysis (1967) • Elaborative thoughts = whether we think favourably of the message • Elaboration likelihood model (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986) Attitude change happens when we THINK about the message (some conditions); Others: short cuts that suggest that message is correct Possible to convince without elaborative thought Compliance = agreeing to a request from someone who does not have the authority to make you obey Robert Cialdini (2007) o Reciprocation o Consistency o Social validation o Liking o Scarcity o Authority Focused on: salespeople, negotiators, real estate agents, con artists, advertisers -- NATURAL SELECTION in compliance professionals
1. Reciprocation • • •
• • • • •
Reciprocation Do something nice, want to do nice back Rule = more willing to comply with a request from someone who has previously provided a favour or concession to us Can’t repay = provokes anxiety o Norm for reciprocation in society (Gouldner, 1960) o Obligation to return form of behaviour we receive from another (Byrne & Rhamey, 1965) o Like those who like us (Braver, 1975) o Cooperate with people who cooperate with us; compete with people who compete with us (Cunningham et al., 1986) o Self-disclose to those who self-disclose to us (Axelrod, 1984) o Make concessions to those who make concessions to us (Regan, 1971) DEVELOPS AND FORMS BASIS OF OTHER RELATIONSHIPS, without there is no trust It’s Not About Liking Regan (1971) = pleasantness of confederate had no impact Soft drink = more raffle tickets, 2x No relationship between tickets and how much they liked the confederate Berry and Kanouse (1987) o Payment manipulation - $20 cheque
PSYC1030: Introduction to Psychology: Developmental, Social & Clinical Psychology (Semester 1, 2017)
2
o
Meaning differed • Gift = 78% • Reward on completion = 66%
•
Reciprocal Concessions & Door in The Face Door in The Face = Still use reciprocation -- give them concession, and ask for concession in return o Start with extremely unreasonable request that you fully expect to be rejected o Retreat to moderate request that you wanted to make all along o Person feels pressured to agree to the second request o Ambit Claim (Blue Sky Demand) = expectation of future compromise o Concession for compromise, moral pressure on another individual o Better at making relative judgements than absolute judgements 50% when used, 17% when not used (about reciprocal concessions)
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Reciprocation: Watergate and Contrast Effects Watergate = Gordon Liddy plan Reciprocal concessions and contrast effect
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2. Consistency
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Consistency We strive to be consistent = powerful motivator Festinger's (1957) Cognitive Dissonance Theory o Inconsistency = uncomfortable Heider's (1957) Balance Theory Desire to APPEAR consistent is also motivational Foot in The Door (essentially opposite of DOOR IN THE FACE) o Ask for something small o Lock them in o Crank it up, much bigger favour - feel pressured to agree Foot in the Door to the Test Self-Perception…. o Initial small request o Agree to request o Larger favour o Agree - pressure to be consistent One initial commitment made, like to live up to them even when costs increased = can be exploited Most powerful when initial commitment is: o Active o Effortful o Made in public o Not coerced Make them feel like they FREELY chose that commitment, and were not pressured Commitment and Consistency Bait and Switch o Inducement to encourage commitment o Commitment o Remove inducement o Still feel pressured to be consistent with initial commitment Low Balling o Inducement o Commitment o Increase cost of action o Pressure to be consistent You should walk away… Would you like to help with experiment? Yes 100% agree But will be a 7 o'clock start, 56% agreed When asked directly, only 31% agreed
PSYC1030: Introduction to Psychology: Developmental, Social & Clinical Psychology (Semester 1, 2017)
3
• • • • •
•
Brainwashing Classic torture techniques = ineffective, Korea Chinese: quiet conversations with captives, admit something mildly pro-communist or anti-American Self-image shifted in alignment with behaviour… people see them as communists Additional intervention = 700% increase! Make existing commitment more salient, desire for consistency influences behaviour so that it is more in line with past behaviour Other Forms of Consistency "How are you feeling?" Technique o Schemas = reply with I'm fine or I'm well o One you have said going well, difficult to be stingy o Example: Howard, 1990
3. Social Validation, Liking, Scarcity • • • •
•
Social Validation Can be persuaded by attitudes and behaviours of OTHER people Evaluate correctness of our own attitude / behaviour / opinion Staring up at the empty skin is an example Festinger's Social Comparison Theory (1954) o Constant drive to evaluate themselves o Prefer objective cues to make evaluations, but not always able to do this; o Rely on social comparison o Principle of Social Evaluation o More willing to comply with a request if behaviour is consistent with others The List Technique o Ask for request after target has been shown a list of others who have agreed to the same request o Tend to go along with other people because we are unsure of appropriate behaviour or do not want to stand out
•
Conformity happens when people give into real or imagined social pressure Asch's 1955 = prime example Individually - less than 1% mistakes In group, increased in incorrect response… 36.8% of the time agreed with other individuals Informational Influence = relied on group to give more accurate information Normative Influence = seeing things differently was something wrong with themselves as a person, wanted to avoid being ridiculed or socially sanctioned People who conform tend to underestimate the extent with which they conformed Influenced by GROUP SIZE After 31.8%, plateau Pressure for conformity has greater effect in some cultures compared to others o Northern American and Western European participants conformed less than participants from Eastern cultures o Reflects nature of socially appropriate behaviour o Western = emphasise individual autonomy, people responsible for own behaviour o Eastern = emphasise interdependence between people and important of social relationships / cooperation Participants were upset, distressed, and tried to make sense of what happened % who will confirm, but quite a lot % resist (some do stick to their own belief) Rebellion o Negotiate with what they see being true to what they see o But be respectful to others who gave incorrect response Irrational, shows blind conformity
• • • •
Power of Friendship and Liking Tupperware parties… Obligation through reciprocation Friendships and interpersonal liking = strong influence of how well we are persuaded Liking can also be generated in other ways:
• • • • • • • • •
• • •
PSYC1030: Introduction to Psychology: Developmental, Social & Clinical Psychology (Semester 1, 2017)
4
o o o o
• • • • • • • •
Physically attractive people Similarity - we like those we are similar to us, mirror and match Cooperation Compliments -- even if the compliments are not true
Scarcity Worchel, Lee, and Adewole (1975) 2 biscuits = rated as more desirable 10 to 2 = even more desirable Abundance to scarcity = impression of demand, more valued 2 to 10 = 10 less desirable Opportunities seem more valuable to us when they are less available: o 1. Difficulty of getting it o 2. Phycological reactance Closed due to fire = more positive, scarcity made them like food more Techniques: o LIMITED NUMBER TACTIC o DEADLINE (once in a life time, closing sale)
4. Authority • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Authority Claimed to be doctor, authority figure = 95% agreed for the dose Bickman, 1974 = more likely to follow commands by an individuals in uniform Wearing a suit makes people more likely to follow your commands Milgram's Study Study of obedience = authority figure commands you to do it (not a favour!) We know when to obey and disobey… form of compliance Two people in a lab, experimenter discussed theory about learning… electric shock = less likely to forget down the track Not actually being shocked All the people went to intense shock, 2/3 went all the way Participants upset and disturbed, within 20 mins We all have a capacity to be evil if the situation demands it Authority Figure = this matters Commitment = start by being helpful, then full horror dawns… at what point do you step back? Responsibility = it's not up to me, authority will take over It's not your responsibility what happens to him, it's mine Barriers to Empathy = more inclined to do it, can't hear screaming About the situation and NOT the person Where obedience = 65%, torn between listening to learner or experimenter
Topic 2: Introduction to Research Methods •
Psychology = the scientific study of human behaviour and thinking o It is not common sense o Ideas often incorrect
1. Common Sense and the Scientific Method
•
Goals of the Scientific Method Three goals of the scientific method are: o 1. Observe and describe Systematically observe different psychological phenomena o 2. Understand and predict Develop and test theories, revise initial theories
PSYC1030: Introduction to Psychology: Developmental, Social & Clinical Psychology (Semester 1, 2017)
5
o
• • • •
• • • •
3. Apply and control Apply theories to real world context and assist people in a positive way Not perfect! Self-corrective forces come into play What is a Theory? A systematic way of organising observations Good theory: o Fits known facts o Makes new testable predictions o Is falsifiable -- central feature, CAN BE PROVEN WRONG not PROVEN WRONG Common Sense Explanations When we observe something, we can always provide plausible explanations which make perfect sense Make predictions before the outcome A lot of intuitive theories about how the world works Confirmation of my theory
2. The Scientific Method
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• •
•
•
The Scientific Method Five main steps: o Formulate a testable hypothesis • Translate theory into testable prediction • Generated from theory • Specific and testable (DIRECTIONAL) • Operationalise the variables ▪ Independent = control and manipulate ▪ Dependent = what we measure (what is influenced by independent) o Design the study o Conduct the study and collect the data o Analyse and evaluate the data o Report the findings Operationalising Variables Abstract concepts into concrete variables we can measure How can we measure hunger? o Ask them to rate on a scale, 1-7 (Self-report measure) o How much they consume o Pavlov - amount of saliva Reliability and Validity Reliability (Internal Validity) = the extent to which a measure produces consistent results E.g. measurement different each time…. Not reliable o 1. Alternate forms Evaluation of 2 different versions of the same measure, compared via error / deviation o 2. Split-half reliability Split one measure into two and compare o 3. Test-retest reliability Same group of people do measure twice with a break Validity (External Validity) = extent to which a measure measures the thing that it's supposed to measure
3. Research Methods
• •
Research Designs and Observational Research Anecdote not a good representation Various research designs depending on what is being tested / what needs to be found
PSYC1030: Introduction to Psychology: Developmental, Social & Clinical Psychology (Semester 1, 2017)
6
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• • • • • • • • • • •
• • • •
• • • • • • •
Observational research = observes behaviour without interfering o Participant observation = observer is participating in the context they are observing
Case Studies In depth investigation of an individual or situation Series of case studies = case study research Interviews, direct observation research, etc. Reliant on SUBJECTIVE JUDGEMENT Knows what they're looking for -- confirmation bias Survey Research BENEFIT = ask people about behaviour that is difficult to observe Measuring difficult to observe behaviour o E.g. water conservation behaviour o Dependent = time in shower Obtain large sample from general population Paper questionnaire, online, telephone, etc. In person = elaborate response to individuals Self-Report Data = unreliable o Lied about data to intentionally deceive experimenter o More responsible o Simply forgot o Reasons it's unreliable: • 1. Intentional deception -- not answering to avoid legal consequence, etc. -- worsened when not anonymous • 2. Social desirability -- know desired answer which makes you look good • 3. Reliance on memory -Correlational Research Relationships between variables Good when we cannot manipulate variables we are interested in E.g. age and test performance (can't make people older, so instead use correlation) Correlation coefficient o -1 = perfect negative relationship o 0 = no relationship o +1 = 1 perfect positive relationship (as one increases, the other increases) Causality Can't tell which causes changes in the other variable Experiments Causation = manipulate one variable, independent variable o Half feed ice cream o Half none Dependent variable = drowning rate Large sample size Lack reality of everyday life Interested in cause and effect = only design where unambiguous info can be gather
• • •
Random Assignment Everybody has an equal chance of being in either condition Randomised method of allocation Confounding Variable = third variable that co-varies with our independent variable that makes it difficult to determine the effect of the independent variable
•
Controlling Bias Demand characteristics = participants respond in the way they think the experimenter wants them to respond o E.g. counting horse, respond to experimenters body language
PSYC1030: Introduction to Psychology: Developmental, Social & Clinical Psychology (Semester 1, 2017)
7
• • • • • • •
Placebo effect = people get better when they perform an intervention which they THINK will make them better -even when there is no reason Experimental bias = experimenters tend to let their expectancies alter the way they treat their participants o Unconscious o Conscious Single-Blind Study Double-Blind Study = participants and experimenter don’t know purpose of study, or what condition is present Sampling = cannot test everybody in target population Ideally use random sampling Or representative sampling (to obtain particular characteristics)
PSYC1030: Introduction to Psychology: Developmental, Social & Clinical Psychology (Semester 1, 2017)
PSYC1030 NOTES FOR LECTURE CONTENT & LAB REPORT Introduction to Psychology: Developmental, Social & Clinical Psychology
Week 3: Persuasion and Introduction to Research Methods Topic 1: Persuasion • •
• • • • •
•
Benefit = more able to defend yourself against others attempting to persuade YOU Strong persuasive message associated by positive cue i.e. attractor communicator o McGuire's Chain of Persuasion (1969) • Presentation • Attention • Comprehension • Yielding • Retention • Behaviour o Brock's Model of Cognitive Analysis (1967) • Elaborative thoughts = whether we think favourably of the message • Elaboration likelihood model (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986) Attitude change happens when we THINK about the message (some conditions); Others: short cuts that suggest that message is correct Possible to convince without elaborative thought Compliance = agreeing to a request from someone who does not have the authority to make you obey Robert Cialdini (2007) o Reciprocation o Consistency o Social validation o Liking o Scarcity o Authority Focused on: salespeople, negotiators, real estate agents, con artists, advertisers -- NATURAL SELECTION in compliance professionals
1. Reciprocation • • •
• • • • •
Reciprocation Do something nice, want to do nice back Rule = more willing to comply with a request from someone who has previously provided a favour or concession to us Can’t repay = provokes anxiety o Norm for reciprocation in society (Gouldner, 1960) o Obligation to return form of behaviour we receive from another (Byrne & Rhamey, 1965) o Like those who like us (Braver, 1975) o Cooperate with people who cooperate with us; compete with people who compete with us (Cunningham et al., 1986) o Self-disclose to those who self-disclose to us (Axelrod, 1984) o Make concessions to those who make concessions to us (Regan, 1971) DEVELOPS AND FORMS BASIS OF OTHER RELATIONSHIPS, without there is no trust It’s Not About Liking Regan (1971) = pleasantness of confederate had no impact Soft drink = more raffle tickets, 2x No relationship between tickets and how much they liked the confederate Berry and Kanouse (1987) o Payment manipulation - $20 cheque
PSYC1030: Introduction to Psychology: Developmental, Social & Clinical Psychology (Semester 1, 2017)
2
o
Meaning differed • Gift = 78% • Reward on completion = 66%
•
Reciprocal Concessions & Door in The Face Door in The Face = Still use reciprocation -- give them concession, and ask for concession in return o Start with extremely unreasonable request that you fully expect to be rejected o Retreat to moderate request that you wanted to make all along o Person feels pressured to agree to the second request o Ambit Claim (Blue Sky Demand) = expectation of future compromise o Concession for compromise, moral pressure on another individual o Better at making relative judgements than absolute judgements 50% when used, 17% when not used (about reciprocal concessions)
• •
Reciprocation: Watergate and Contrast Effects Watergate = Gordon Liddy plan Reciprocal concessions and contrast effect
•
2. Consistency
• • • • •
•
• •
• •
•
• • • •
Consistency We strive to be consistent = powerful motivator Festinger's (1957) Cognitive Dissonance Theory o Inconsistency = uncomfortable Heider's (1957) Balance Theory Desire to APPEAR consistent is also motivational Foot in The Door (essentially opposite of DOOR IN THE FACE) o Ask for something small o Lock them in o Crank it up, much bigger favour - feel pressured to agree Foot in the Door to the Test Self-Perception…. o Initial small request o Agree to request o Larger favour o Agree - pressure to be consistent One initial commitment made, like to live up to them even when costs increased = can be exploited Most powerful when initial commitment is: o Active o Effortful o Made in public o Not coerced Make them feel like they FREELY chose that commitment, and were not pressured Commitment and Consistency Bait and Switch o Inducement to encourage commitment o Commitment o Remove inducement o Still feel pressured to be consistent with initial commitment Low Balling o Inducement o Commitment o Increase cost of action o Pressure to be consistent You should walk away… Would you like to help with experiment? Yes 100% agree But will be a 7 o'clock start, 56% agreed When asked directly, only 31% agreed
PSYC1030: Introduction to Psychology: Developmental, Social & Clinical Psychology (Semester 1, 2017)
3
• • • • •
•
Brainwashing Classic torture techniques = ineffective, Korea Chinese: quiet conversations with captives, admit something mildly pro-communist or anti-American Self-image shifted in alignment with behaviour… people see them as communists Additional intervention = 700% increase! Make existing commitment more salient, desire for consistency influences behaviour so that it is more in line with past behaviour Other Forms of Consistency "How are you feeling?" Technique o Schemas = reply with I'm fine or I'm well o One you have said going well, difficult to be stingy o Example: Howard, 1990
3. Social Validation, Liking, Scarcity • • • •
•
Social Validation Can be persuaded by attitudes and behaviours of OTHER people Evaluate correctness of our own attitude / behaviour / opinion Staring up at the empty skin is an example Festinger's Social Comparison Theory (1954) o Constant drive to evaluate themselves o Prefer objective cues to make evaluations, but not always able to do this; o Rely on social comparison o Principle of Social Evaluation o More willing to comply with a request if behaviour is consistent with others The List Technique o Ask for request after target has been shown a list of others who have agreed to the same request o Tend to go along with other people because we are unsure of appropriate behaviour or do not want to stand out
•
Conformity happens when people give into real or imagined social pressure Asch's 1955 = prime example Individually - less than 1% mistakes In group, increased in incorrect response… 36.8% of the time agreed with other individuals Informational Influence = relied on group to give more accurate information Normative Influence = seeing things differently was something wrong with themselves as a person, wanted to avoid being ridiculed or socially sanctioned People who conform tend to underestimate the extent with which they conformed Influenced by GROUP SIZE After 31.8%, plateau Pressure for conformity has greater effect in some cultures compared to others o Northern American and Western European participants conformed less than participants from Eastern cultures o Reflects nature of socially appropriate behaviour o Western = emphasise individual autonomy, people responsible for own behaviour o Eastern = emphasise interdependence between people and important of social relationships / cooperation Participants were upset, distressed, and tried to make sense of what happened % who will confirm, but quite a lot % resist (some do stick to their own belief) Rebellion o Negotiate with what they see being true to what they see o But be respectful to others who gave incorrect response Irrational, shows blind conformity
• • • •
Power of Friendship and Liking Tupperware parties… Obligation through reciprocation Friendships and interpersonal liking = strong influence of how well we are persuaded Liking can also be generated in other ways:
• • • • • • • • •
• • •
PSYC1030: Introduction to Psychology: Developmental, Social & Clinical Psychology (Semester 1, 2017)
4
o o o o
• • • • • • • •
Physically attractive people Similarity - we like those we are similar to us, mirror and match Cooperation Compliments -- even if the compliments are not true
Scarcity Worchel, Lee, and Adewole (1975) 2 biscuits = rated as more desirable 10 to 2 = even more desirable Abundance to scarcity = impression of demand, more valued 2 to 10 = 10 less desirable Opportunities seem more valuable to us when they are less available: o 1. Difficulty of getting it o 2. Phycological reactance Closed due to fire = more positive, scarcity made them like food more Techniques: o LIMITED NUMBER TACTIC o DEADLINE (once in a life time, closing sale)
4. Authority • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Authority Claimed to be doctor, authority figure = 95% agreed for the dose Bickman, 1974 = more likely to follow commands by an individuals in uniform Wearing a suit makes people more likely to follow your commands Milgram's Study Study of obedience = authority figure commands you to do it (not a favour!) We know when to obey and disobey… form of compliance Two people in a lab, experimenter discussed theory about learning… electric shock = less likely to forget down the track Not actually being shocked All the people went to intense shock, 2/3 went all the way Participants upset and disturbed, within 20 mins We all have a capacity to be evil if the situation demands it Authority Figure = this matters Commitment = start by being helpful, then full horror dawns… at what point do you step back? Responsibility = it's not up to me, authority will take over It's not your responsibility what happens to him, it's mine Barriers to Empathy = more inclined to do it, can't hear screaming About the situation and NOT the person Where obedience = 65%, torn between listening to learner or experimenter
Topic 2: Introduction to Research Methods •
Psychology = the scientific study of human behaviour and thinking o It is not common sense o Ideas often incorrect
1. Common Sense and the Scientific Method
•
Goals of the Scientific Method Three goals of the scientific method are: o 1. Observe and describe Systematically observe different psychological phenomena o 2. Understand and predict Develop and test theories, revise initial theories
PSYC1030: Introduction to Psychology: Developmental, Social & Clinical Psychology (Semester 1, 2017)
5
o
• • • •
• • • •
3. Apply and control Apply theories to real world context and assist people in a positive way Not perfect! Self-corrective forces come into play What is a Theory? A systematic way of organising observations Good theory: o Fits known facts o Makes new testable predictions o Is falsifiable -- central feature, CAN BE PROVEN WRONG not PROVEN WRONG Common Sense Explanations When we observe something, we can always provide plausible explanations which make perfect sense Make predictions before the outcome A lot of intuitive theories about how the world works Confirmation of my theory
2. The Scientific Method
•
• •
•
•
The Scientific Method Five main steps: o Formulate a testable hypothesis • Translate theory into testable prediction • Generated from theory • Specific and testable (DIRECTIONAL) • Operationalise the variables ▪ Independent = control and manipulate ▪ Dependent = what we measure (what is influenced by independent) o Design the study o Conduct the study and collect the data o Analyse and evaluate the data o Report the findings Operationalising Variables Abstract concepts into concrete variables we can measure How can we measure hunger? o Ask them to rate on a scale, 1-7 (Self-report measure) o How much they consume o Pavlov - amount of saliva Reliability and Validity Reliability (Internal Validity) = the extent to which a measure produces consistent results E.g. measurement different each time…. Not reliable o 1. Alternate forms Evaluation of 2 different versions of the same measure, compared via error / deviation o 2. Split-half reliability Split one measure into two and compare o 3. Test-retest reliability Same group of people do measure twice with a break Validity (External Validity) = extent to which a measure measures the thing that it's supposed to measure
3. Research Methods
• •
Research Designs and Observational Research Anecdote not a good representation Various research designs depending on what is being tested / what needs to be found
PSYC1030: Introduction to Psychology: Developmental, Social & Clinical Psychology (Semester 1, 2017)
6
•
• • • • • • • • • • •
• • • •
• • • • • • •
Observational research = observes behaviour without interfering o Participant observation = observer is participating in the context they are observing
Case Studies In depth investigation of an individual or situation Series of case studies = case study research Interviews, direct observation research, etc. Reliant on SUBJECTIVE JUDGEMENT Knows what they're looking for -- confirmation bias Survey Research BENEFIT = ask people about behaviour that is difficult to observe Measuring difficult to observe behaviour o E.g. water conservation behaviour o Dependent = time in shower Obtain large sample from general population Paper questionnaire, online, telephone, etc. In person = elaborate response to individuals Self-Report Data = unreliable o Lied about data to intentionally deceive experimenter o More responsible o Simply forgot o Reasons it's unreliable: • 1. Intentional deception -- not answering to avoid legal consequence, etc. -- worsened when not anonymous • 2. Social desirability -- know desired answer which makes you look good • 3. Reliance on memory -Correlational Research Relationships between variables Good when we cannot manipulate variables we are interested in E.g. age and test performance (can't make people older, so instead use correlation) Correlation coefficient o -1 = perfect negative relationship o 0 = no relationship o +1 = 1 perfect positive relationship (as one increases, the other increases) Causality Can't tell which causes changes in the other variable Experiments Causation = manipulate one variable, independent variable o Half feed ice cream o Half none Dependent variable = drowning rate Large sample size Lack reality of everyday life Interested in cause and effect = only design where unambiguous info can be gather
• • •
Random Assignment Everybody has an equal chance of being in either condition Randomised method of allocation Confounding Variable = third variable that co-varies with our independent variable that makes it difficult to determine the effect of the independent variable
•
Controlling Bias Demand characteristics = participants respond in the way they think the experimenter wants them to respond o E.g. counting horse, respond to experimenters body language
PSYC1030: Introduction to Psychology: Developmental, Social & Clinical Psychology (Semester 1, 2017)
7
• • • • • • •
Placebo effect = people get better when they perform an intervention which they THINK will make them better -even when there is no reason Experimental bias = experimenters tend to let their expectancies alter the way they treat their participants o Unconscious o Conscious Single-Blind Study Double-Blind Study = participants and experimenter don’t know purpose of study, or what condition is present Sampling = cannot test everybody in target population Ideally use random sampling Or representative sampling (to obtain particular characteristics)
PSYC1030: Introduction to Psychology: Developmental, Social & Clinical Psychology (Semester 1, 2017)
