Guideposts for Study
Psychosocial Development During The First Three Years
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Chapter 6
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Guideposts for Study z
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When and how do emotions develop, and how do babies show them? How do infants show temperamental differences, and how enduring are those differences? What roles do mothers and fathers play in early personality development? When and how do gender differences appear? © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
Emotions
How do infants gain trust in their world and form attachments, and how do infants and caregivers “read” each other’s nonverbal signals? When and how does the sense of self arise, and how do toddlers develop autonomy and standards for socially acceptable behavior? How do infants and toddlers interact with siblings and other children? How do parental employment and early child care affect infants’ and toddlers’ development? © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
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Subjective responses to experience Sadness, joy, fear Associated with – –
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Physiological changes Behavioral changes
Expressions depend upon culture and personality
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First Signs of Emotion: Crying! z z
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Baby becomes quiet at: Sound of human voice Being picked up
Piercing cries, flailing of limbs, stiff body
Types of cries: –
Hunger Pain Frustration
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Baby smiles when gently moved –
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More difficult to tell when the newborn is happy © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
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Emotions: First Month
It is obvious when newborns are upset! –
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‘Pattycake’
Smiling and cooing
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Smiling & Laughing z
Involuntary smiles – –
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Self Emotions z
A realization that one’s existence is separate from others z
Waking smiles after one month – –
Self-Awareness
Appear at birth Result of subcortical brain activity
Self-Consciousness –
Considered more social Elicited through gentle jiggling, tickling or kissing
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© 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
Self-Evaluative Emotions z
Pride, shame and guilt
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Require self-awareness and knowledge of socially accepted behaviors
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Ability to put oneself in another’s place –
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that others have thoughts and
feelings –
Children compare their own thoughts and behaviors against what is socially OK
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Ideas about others’ feelings are used to gauge own behavior
Egocentrism – absence of empathy
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Temperament
Four Major Shifts: z
Requires social cognition z Understanding
Brain Growth and Emotional Development
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Empathy z
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Depends on having self-awareness Embarrassment and empathy
A biological predisposition of reactivity z Highly heritable and stable z Generally, how mellow are you from situation to situation? z
Cerebral cortex becomes functional Frontal lobes interact with the limbic system Infant develops self-awareness and consciousness Hormonal changes coincide with evaluative emotions © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
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© 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
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Three Temperaments z
Easy – –
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Generally happy Responds well to change and novelty
Adjustment is easiest when the child’s temperament matches the situation –
Slow to Warm Up – –
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Goodness of Fit
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Generally mild reactions Hesitant about new experiences
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Physically Socially Culturally
Difficult – –
Irritable Intense emotional responses © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
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© 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
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The Mother’s Role: Harry Harlow
Emotions During First 3 Years
Research with rhesus monkeys z Newborns placed with ‘foster mother’ z
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Cloth mother offered no food Wire mother provided food
Babies preferred cloth mother z The importance of ‘contact comfort’ z
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© 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
The Father’s Role
Gender Differences z
Entails emotional commitment and direct involvement z Amount of involvement can vary greatly z In the U.S., father involvement has increased dramatically since 1970s z
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What it means to be male or female z
Gender-typing –
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More women work outside the home © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
Gender
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Socialization by which children learn gender roles Parents important in socialization
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Gender differences z z
Basic Trust v. Basic Mistrust
Measurable differences are few Behavioral differences between 1 and 2 years – – –
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Boys play more aggressively Word choices Perceptions of gender
Newborns and infants develop a sense of reliability of people and objects Erikson Stage 1: Basic Trust – –
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Sensitive, responsive and consistent care. ‘Can I count on you to feed me when I’m hungry?’
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Attachment
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Attachment in Strange Situation
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Reciprocal and enduring bond between child and caregiver
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Studied by Mary Ainsworth
Attachment Secure
‘Strange Situation’ experiments
InsecureResistant Disorganized
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Plays freely when mother is near Happy when mother returns Hovers around mother Angry when mother returns Inconsistent & erratic Seems overwhelmed by stress 22
Long-Term Effects of Attachment
Parental –
Child’s Behavior
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Influences on Attachment z
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More securely attached children develop good relationships with others z Larger vocabularies z Higher levels of curiosity and selfconfidence z Preparation for adult intimacy z
Level of warmth and responsiveness Employment and amount of separation Own memories about their attachment
Baby’s temperament
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© 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
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Mutual Regulation of Emotions
Box 1: Postpartum Depression z z z z z
Infant and caregiver responding to each other’s emotional states z Social Referencing z
Detrimental effects Babies may become depressed themselves Unusual patterns of brain activity Insecurely attached Treatment strategies © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
Baby’s attempt to understand an ambiguous situation by seeking out cues from caregiver –
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Emergence of Self Concept
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Self-concept: The image of ourselves Personal agency
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Self-efficacy
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What would baby do if you said ‘YECH!’ to a toy? © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
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Box 2: Toddler Struggles z z
‘I can make that move!’
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Are “terrible twos” universal? Methods of handling sibling conflict Individual needs versus group needs
‘I’m GREAT at making it move!’ z
Self-awareness – –
Knowledge of the self as a distinct being Rouge test © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
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© 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
Autonomy v. Shame z
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Moral Development
Autonomy –
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A shift from external control to self-control Emerges from trust and self-awareness The Terrible Twos
Socialization •
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Shame and doubt –
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How children develop habits and values that make them productive members of society
Internalization •
Making the standards of society your own
Help toddler recognize need for limits
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© 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
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Developing Self-Regulation z z
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Origins of Conscience
Having control over own behavior Conforming with caregiver’s standards ….even if caregiver is not present Depends on attentional processes – Ability to monitor negative emotions
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Committed and Situational Compliance z
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Security of attachment Receptive cooperation z Mutual responsiveness of parent and child z
Willingly follows orders without lapses Shows internalization of household rules
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Situational Compliance –
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Factors in the Success of Socialization
Committed Compliance –
Emotional discomfort about doing something wrong The ability to refrain from doing something wrong Refraining because they believe it is the right thing to do…not just self-regulation
Follows orders with prompting and reminders © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
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Sociabililty with Siblings
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Sociability with Non-Siblings Babies who spend more time with other babies tend to be more sociable z Toddlers can learn by imitating each other z
Becomes a vehicle for understanding social relationships outside the home z Constructive conflict helps children with empathy z
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© 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
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Playing follow-the-leader Paves the way for more complex games © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
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Effects of Parental Employment
Factors in Impact of Child Care
NLSY found little or no effect of maternal employment on children’s: z Compliance z Behavioral problems z Self-esteem z Cognitive development z Academic achievement © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
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Causes behavioral, cognitive or mental disorders May include rejection 39
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Abuse-Prevention Programs
Abuse is more likely if: z Criminal activity is rampant in community z There are few community programs z Violent crime is frequent in that country
Teach parenting skills Offer ‘respite homes’ and ‘relief parents’ z Investigate reports of maltreatment z Provide shelters and therapy z Facilitate foster care z z
USA v. Japan
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Perpetrator usually mother Aggravated by: Marital problems Stressful events (getting laid off) Lack of parental education Poverty Alcoholism Depression
Community & Cultural Factors in Child Abuse
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Traits of Abusive & Neglectful Families
Physical z Neglect z Sexual z Emotional Maltreatment
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Warmth and sensitivity of workers Appropriateness of activities
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Staff training Ratio of children to staff
Process characteristics –
Types of Child Abuse
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Structural characteristics
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Long Term Effects of Maltreatment z z
1/3 of adults abused as children victimize own children Sexually abused children grow up with: – – –
Lower self-esteem Greater risk of depression and anxiety Risk of precocious sexual behavior
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