2: THEORIES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
EDPE 300: MIDTERM CONTENT
Fall 2012
2: THEORIES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Piaget
children active & motivated learners construct knowledge from experiences interaction with physical & social environments essential for cognitive development cognitive development can proceed only after certain genetically controlled neurological changes occur Organization scheme: organized group of similar actions or thoughts basic blocks of thinking children organize what the learn and do into schemes Adaption schemes change over time assimilation: dealing with a new event in a way that is consistent with an existing scheme accommodation: dealing with a new event by modifying an existing scheme/forming new one assimilation & accommodation typically work together Equilibration equilibrium: state of being able to explain new events by using existing schemes disequilibrium: an inability to explain new events by using existing schemes equilibration: movement from equilibrium to disequilibrium & back to equilibrium o promotes development of more complex forms of thought & knowledge 4 Stages of Cognitive Development sensorimotor stage (birth until age 2) o schemes based on behaviour & perceptions (5 senses) no mental schemes o develop object permanence: realization objects continue to exist even after they are removed from view o cause-effect relationships preoperational stage (2-7 years) o semiotic function (ability to use symbols) o think about objects beyond immediate view o schemes independent of immediate perceptions & behaviours o language skills explode o one-way logic o difficulty with principle of conservation: realization if nothing is added or taken away amount stays the same regardless of alternations in shape/arrangement o egocentrism: inability to view situations from another person’s perspective collective monologue concrete operations stage (7-11 years) o concrete thinking (hands on thinking)
EDPE 300: MIDTERM CONTENT
Fall 2012
o o o o
identity compensation reversibility multiple classification: recognition that objects may belong to several categories at once o seriation formal operations stage (12+) o “scientific” reasoning o abstract thinking o hypothetico-deductive reasoning o adolescent egocentrism: inability of individuals to separate their own abstract logic from the perspectives of others and from practical considerations o imaginary audience (not reached by all)
Implications for Teachers gives understanding of how students’ think (match teaching approach to cognitive stage) since learners construct knowledge teachers can build on what is learned learners learn through play disequilibrium motivates learning Teaching the Preoperational Child use concrete props & visual aids make instruction short; use actions & words don’t expect students to be consistent in ability to see world from another point of view be sensitive to possibility children may have different meanings for same word or different words for same meaning provide hands on practice provide wide variety of experiences to build foundation for concept learning & language Teaching the Concrete Operational Child continue using props & visual aids continue giving students change to manipulate & test objects keep presentations/readings brief & well organized use familiar examples give opportunity to classify & group objects/ideas present problems with logical & analytical thinking Helping Students Use Formal Operations continue to use concrete operational teaching strategies & materials give opportunity to explore many hypothetical questions give opportunity to solve problems & reason scientifically teach broad concepts & not just facts use materials/ideas relevant to students’ lives
EDPE 300: MIDTERM CONTENT
Fall 2012
Teacher’s Casebook The provincial curriculum guide calls for a unit on symbolism in poems. You are concerned that any of your grade 5 students may not be ready to understand this abstract concept. To test the waters you ask a few students to describe a symbol. “It’s sorts like a big metal thing that you bang together.” “My sister plays one in the high school band” Sean adds. You realize that they are on the wrong track here so you try again, “I was thinking of a different kind of symbol . . . like a heart as a symbol of love.” You are met with blank stares. Trevor ventures, “You mean like the Olympic torch?” “And what does that symbolizes, Trevor?” you ask. “I said the torch.” Trevor wonders how you could be so dense. “*…+ To develop the concept of symbol I would first design activities in which students could engage independently or in small groups. For example, I might engage students in a matching activity that requires them to identify the symbolic meaning of concrete or real-life objects. I might create a worksheet that includes two lists: one list would include real-world objects, such as a dove or a heart (this list might be presented as pictures); the second list would include descriptions of the symbolic meaning of each object. Students would match the picture of the dove with peace. … I might ask the students to generate their own symbols…”
Vygotsky
social interactions shape learning knowledge is co-constructed adults and peers scaffold Private Speech and Self Talk private speech: when thought and language merge self talk: talking to oneself as a way of guiding oneself through a task Piaget Vygotsky Developmental Significance not yet able to converse externalized thinking increases in youth, then is Course of Development declines with age internalized Relationship to Social negative; immature positive; prompted Relationship to Piaget did not comment increases with task difficulty Environmental Context Zone of Proximal Development zone of proximal development: range of tasks between actual development level and level of potential development o actual development level: extent to which one can successfully perform task independently o level of potential development: extent to which one can successfully execute task with assistance of a more competent individual scaffolding: support mechanism provided by more competent individual that helps learner successfully perform task within their ZPD fading: gradually withdraw support mechanisms
EDPE 300: MIDTERM CONTENT Limitations humans may be more biologically predisposed to learn consists mostly of general ideas Implications for Teachers role of adults and peers o socially constructed meaning o guided participation (assisted learning) o mediated learning experiences o apprenticeship o cognitive apprenticeship (features) o peer interaction teaching with technology understanding and building on students’ thinking activity and constructing knowledge value of play
Information Processing View
brain is a computer as children mature their brain develops
Attention attention: the focusing of mental processes on particular environmental stimuli attention span increases over time (exception: ADD) relevant content yields better learning how & what children learn depends on what they intend to learn
Fall 2012
EDPE 300: MIDTERM CONTENT
Fall 2012
Learning Strategies learning strategies: one or more cognitive processes used intentionally for a particular learning task rehearsal: information is repeated over and over as a possible way of learning & remembering o develops in elementary school years o chanting, assimilation of words with rhythm, writing notes multiple times organization: learners find connections among information they need to learn o improves & continues to develop through childhood o forming categories, cause-effect relationships elaboration: cognitive process in which learners expand on new information based on what they already know become more sophisticated over time Knowledge Base knowledge base: one’s knowledge about specific topics and the world in general amount of knowledge increases over time & becomes increasingly more integrated Metacognition metacognition: one’s knowledge and beliefs about one’s own cognitive processes and one’s resulting attempts to regulate those cognitive processes to maximize learning and memory as children mature they become more aware of their memory limitations children become more knowledgeable about effective learning strategies
3: PERSONAL, SOCIAL AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT Personal Development Erik Erikson’s 8 Psychosocial Stages emphasized emergence of self, search for identity, relationships & role of culture 8 individual stages o trust vs. mistrust infancy 0-1 year; feeding o autonomy vs. shame and doubt toddler 1-2 years; toilet training o initiative vs. guilt early childhood 2-6 years; independence o industry vs. inferiority elementary-middle 6-12 years; school o identity vs. role confusion adolescence 12-18 years; peer relationships o intimacy vs. isolation young adulthood; love relationships o generativity vs. stagnation middle adulthood; parenting o integrity vs. despair late adulthood; reflection on & acceptance of one’s life Marcia’s Patterns of Identity Status identity: self constructed definition of who a person thinks they are and what’s important in life identity diffusion o no commitment to particular career path or ideological belief system
EDPE 300: MIDTERM CONTENT
Fall 2012
o some experimentation, but n o serious exploration of issues related to self definition foreclosure o firm commitment to occupation & set of beliefs o choices based largely on others moratorium o no strong commitment to occupation & set of beliefs but actively exploring o undergoing identity crisis identity achievement o previously gone through moratorium o emerged with commitment to particular political or religious beliefs & clear occupation choice
Implications of Erikson’s Theory initiative (preschool) o allow limited choices that will often result in success o encourage make-believe around stories of interest o be tolerant of mistakes especially when children attempt to do something on their own industry (elementary and middle school) o help students set & achieve realistic goals o allow for & support opportunities to be independent identity (adolescence) o supply variety of positive role models o help students find resources to solve personal problems o be tolerant of fads if they don’t offend others or interfere with teaching o give students realistic feedback about themselves
Social Development Peer Relationships classroom is a social place interactions allow individuals to learn & practice social skills offer social & emotional support influential socialization agents peer pressure: students’ peers strongly encourage some behaviours and discourage others Friendships close friends usually same age, gender, race emotional investment help boost self esteem and bring a sense of belonging Larger Social Groups enjoy company of many peers to form large social groups members feel loyalty to one another & hostility towards members of other groups groups attach names to other groups (jocks, geeks, etc.)
EDPE 300: MIDTERM CONTENT
Fall 2012
3 distinct types of groups during adolescence o clique: moderately stable friendship group of 3-10 members o subculture: resists dominant culture & adopts own norms o gang: cohesive small group characterized by initiation rites, distinctive colour/symbols, territorial orientation & feuds with rival groups
Romantic Relationships addresses student need for companionship, affection, security, social skills and interpersonal behaviours extreme mood swings difficulty coping with emotions elementary – middle school o crushes based on physical appearance o social status o limited interactions high school o long term relationships (more interaction, sexual intimacy) o mixed feelings about sexuality o sexual identity (homosexuality) Fostering Social Skills social skills: behaviours that enable a person to interact effectively with others prosocial behaviour: when someone uses social skills that benefit someone else rather than ourselves; ie/ sharing, helping, comforting, etc. How Teachers Can Help provide numerous opportunities for social interaction plan co-operative activities help students interpret social situations label and praise appropriate behaviours teach social problem-solving strategies establish and enforce classroom rules prevent and manage peer harassment
5: BEHAVIOURIST VIEW OF LEARNING Learning Definition of Learning permanent change in behaviour and/or knowledge result of experience not result of maturation or temporary conditions (illness)
EDPE 300: MIDTERM CONTENT
Fall 2012
Assumptions students’ behaviours result from interaction (experience) with environmental stimuli relationships among observable events learning involves a behaviour change contiguity learning o repeated pairing = association of two events o stimulus = 1st event, response = memory of the 2nd event o ie/ 7 x 8 = 56 o ie/ hear state name = remember capital
Conditioning Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov & dog salivation experiment classical conditioning: form of learning whereby a new, involuntary response is acquired as a result of two stimuli being present at the same time neutral stimulus unconditioned stimulus response conditioned stimulus conditioned response unconditioned stimulus: stimulus that without prior learning elicits particular response unconditioned response: response that without prior learned is elicited by a particular stimulus neutral stimulus: stimulus that doesn’t elicits any particular behaviour conditioned stimulus: stimulus that begins to elicit a particular response conditioned response: response that begins to be elicited by a particular behaviour Operant Conditioning operant conditioning: form of learning whereby a voluntary response increases a frequency as a result of it being followed by reinforcement when behaviour followed by desirable consequence, increases in frequency when behaviour doesn’t produce results, decreases in frequency Classic vs. Operant Conditioning classical = involuntary response caused by pairing of two stimuli operant = voluntary response caused by reinforcement Reinforcement reinforcement: act of following a particular response with a reinforcer & thereby increasing frequency of that response positive reinforcement: consequence that brings about increase of behaviour through presentation of a stimulus o concrete reinforcer can be touched o social reinforcer gesture/sign o activity reinforcer opportunity to engage in favourite activity
EDPE 300: MIDTERM CONTENT
Fall 2012
Premack principle: phenomenon whereby individuals do less-preferred activities in order to engage in more-preferred activities o positive feedback mess that answer/task is correct o extrinsic reinforcer comes from outside environment o intrinsic reinforcer provided by self negative reinforcement: consequence that brings about the increase of a behaviour through the removal of a stimulus
Reinforcement Schedules continuous: reinforcement after every response turning on television o rapid learning of response o very little persistence when reinforcement stops fixed interval: reinforcement after a set period of time weekly quiz o response rate increases as time for reinforcement approaches then drops o little persistence, rapid drop in response rate when time for reinforcement passes & no reinforcer appears variable interval: reinforcement after varying lengths of time pop quiz o slow, steady rate of responding; very little pause after reinforcement o greater persistence; slow decline in response rate fixed ratio: reinforcement after a set number of responses piece work, bake sale o rapid response rate; pause after reinforcement o little persistence; rapid drop in response rate when expected number of responses given & no reinforcer appears variable ratio: reinforcement after a varying number of responses slot machines o very high response rate; little pause after reinforcement o greatest persistence; response rate stays high & gradually drops off Punishment presentation punishment: adverse or unpleasant consequences removal punishment: loss of privileges or desired outcomes use two pronged approach o provide punishment for undesired behaviour simultaneously o clarify & reinforce desired behaviour be consistent
6: COGNITIVE VIEWS OF LEARNING Memory System
memory: the learner’s ability to save something mentally storage: process of putting new information into our memory encoding: process of changing format of new information as it is being stored into our memory o ie/ apple = type of fruit that grows on trees retrieval: the way one goes about “finding” information that has already been stored in their memory
EDPE 300: MIDTERM CONTENT
Fall 2012
Sensory Memory capacity: very large duration: very short (1-3 seconds) purpose: process sensations Working Memory capacity: limited (5-9 separate items) duration: 5 – 20 seconds purpose: temporary storage and active processing Long Term Memory capacity: relatively unlimited duration: relatively unlimited purpose: long term storage retrieval o spread of activation o reconstruction forgetting o failure to retrieve: failing to locate information that currently exists o reconstruction error: constructing a logical but incorrect memory o interferences: phenomenon whereby something stored in long term memory inhibits one’s ability to remember something else correctly o decay: hypothesized weakening over time of information stored in long-term memory o failure to store: failure to mentally process information in ways that promote its storage in long term memory differences o declarative knowledge = what o procedural knowledge = how o conditional knowledge = when & why Implications for Teaching encoding o help students store more information by presenting information visually, auditorily and/or semantically o students can be auditory or visual learners o useful for studying retrieval o students need retrieval practice to ensure information is stored and remembered o information will be forgotten if it is not at least occasionally reviewed
7: CONSTRUCTIVIST VIEW OF LEARNING Complex Cognitive Processes I
EDPE 300: MIDTERM CONTENT
Fall 2012
Definition of Learning individual constructivism: theoretical perspective that focuses on how people as individuals construct meaning from the events around them social constructivism: theoretical perspective that emphasizes that an individual’s meaning making/learning is mediated by adults/more knowledgeable peers even though it is ultimately constructed by the individual learner Learning and Teaching Concepts concepts o general categories of similar ideas, events, objects, people, etc. o abstractions o ways to organize information prototype o best representative of a category exemplar o specific example of a prototype schemas o schematic knowledge related to the concept Strategies for Teaching Concepts concept attainment lesson components o examples & nonexamples o relevant & irrelevant attributes o name o definition (general & attribute) lesson structure o examples prevent undergeneralization: overly narrow view of what objects/events a concept includes o nonexamples prevent overgeneralization: overly broad view of what objects/events a concept includes extend & connect concepts (interconnectedness) use visual aids concept mapping Concept Attainment: Lesson Structure phase 1: presentation of data & identification of concept present labeled examples students compare negative & positive examples students generate & test hypotheses students state a definition according to essential attributes phase 2: testing attainment of the concept students identify additional unlabeled examples as “yes” or “no” teacher confirms hypothesis, names concept, restates definitions
EDPE 300: MIDTERM CONTENT
Fall 2012
students generate examples phase 3 : analysis of thinking strategies students describe their thoughts students discuss role of hypothesis and attributes students discuss types and number of hypotheses
Promoting Conceptual Change: Correcting Misconceptions probe students’ understanding (pretest or discussion questions) expose students to information that contradicts their beliefs demonstrate how correct explanations connect to their own personal interest listen to your students Effective Knowledge Construction provide opportunities for experimentation emphasize conceptual understanding present ideas of others use authentic activities: classroom activity similar to one students are likely to encounter in outside world promote dialogue create community of learners: classroom in which teacher & students actively and collaboratively work to help one another learn
Complex Cognitive Processes II Problem Solving problem exploration solution debate: general or domain specific? IDEAL: heuristic for problem solving o Identify the problem & opportunities o Define goals and represent the problem o Explore possible strategies o Anticipate & act on the strategies o Look back & learn from the effects of your strategies Defining Goals & Representing the Problem focusing attention understanding the words: part or whole relevance understanding the whole problem translation and schema training results of problem representation Exploring Possible Solutions algorithm: prescribed sequence of steps that guarantees a correct problem solution heuristic: general problem solving strategy that may or may not yield a problem solution
EDPE 300: MIDTERM CONTENT o o o o
Fall 2012
means-ends analysis working backwards analogical thinking verbalization
Effective Problem Solving anticipate, act, look back o anticipate consequences o act on best solution o look back and evaluate your success overcome factors that hinder solutions o functional fixedness & response set o confirmation bias & belief perseverance o lack of flexibility Effective Learning Strategies identify important information take notes o helps students focus attention & encode information o gives outlet for external storage of information retrieval organize o concept map elaborate o elaborative interrogation: strategy in which students develop & answer knowledge expecting questions about material they are trying to learn summarize monitor comprehension o comprehension monitoring: process of checking oneself to make sure one understand the things being read or heard o illusion of knowing: thinking one knows something that one actually does not know o self questioning: process of asking oneself questions as a way of checking one’s understanding of a topic
8: SOCIO-COGNITIVE THEORY Observational Learning Modelling modeling: form of learning where individuals learn by observing other people and then by copying them learn motor skills, academic skills, interpersonal skills & moral values learn from live models & symbolic models
EDPE 300: MIDTERM CONTENT
Fall 2012
4 Types of Effect Modelling Has on Behaviour observational learning effect: occurs when an observer acquires a new behaviour after watching someone else demonstrate it response facilitation effect: occurs when an observer displays a previously learned behaviour more frequently after seeing someone else being reinforced for that behaviour response inhibition effect: occurs when an observer displays a previously learned behaviour less frequently after seeing someone else being punished for that behaviour response disinhibition effect: occurs when an observer displays a previously forbidden or punished behaviour more frequently after seeing someone else exhibit that behaviour without adverse consequences 4 Main Characteristics of Effective Models competence will imitate people who do something well prestige and power imitate people who are famous or powerful “sex appropriate” behaviour model behaviours they think are appropriate for their sex behaviour relevant to the learner’s own situation teachers must show students who their behaviours are applicable to the student’s situation Helping Students Learn from Models attention o must observe carefully before imitating model retention o must memorize what model does o more effective in remembering if taught it more than one way o descriptive labels on behaviours that are difficult to remember motor reproduction o must be able to physically reproduce model’s behaviour o to be more effective repeat immediately after demonstration/behaviour & accompany it by verbal guidance/feedback motivation o must be motivated to demonstrate what they have observed & remembered Vicarious Experiences vicarious reinforcement: phenomenon whereby response increases in frequency when another person is reinforced for that response vicarious punishment: phenomenon whereby response decreases in frequency when another person is punished for that response
EDPE 300: MIDTERM CONTENT
Fall 2012
Reciprocal Determinism (Causation)
Personal Factors goals, self-efficacy, outcome expectation, self evaluation, self-regulatory progress
Social Influences (Environment) models, instruction, feedback
Applying Social Cognitive Theory self efficacy & motivation teachers’ sense of efficacy self-regulated learning o knowledge o motivation o volition (self discipline) teaching self efficacy & self regulation Self-Regulating Students know themselves know & apply successful strategies recognize & differentiate contexts motivated to learn manage their own volition Teacher Strategies to Increase Self Regulation employ complex or thematic learning units o teach problem-solving transfer o have students set short term goals o teach strategies (outline, note taking) o reward achievement not simply engagement share locus of control (offer choice) formal & informal self evaluation collaborative work structures (shared problem solving)
Achievement Outcomes (Behaviour) goal progress, motivation, learning
Fall 2012
2: THEORIES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Piaget
children active & motivated learners construct knowledge from experiences interaction with physical & social environments essential for cognitive development cognitive development can proceed only after certain genetically controlled neurological changes occur Organization scheme: organized group of similar actions or thoughts basic blocks of thinking children organize what the learn and do into schemes Adaption schemes change over time assimilation: dealing with a new event in a way that is consistent with an existing scheme accommodation: dealing with a new event by modifying an existing scheme/forming new one assimilation & accommodation typically work together Equilibration equilibrium: state of being able to explain new events by using existing schemes disequilibrium: an inability to explain new events by using existing schemes equilibration: movement from equilibrium to disequilibrium & back to equilibrium o promotes development of more complex forms of thought & knowledge 4 Stages of Cognitive Development sensorimotor stage (birth until age 2) o schemes based on behaviour & perceptions (5 senses) no mental schemes o develop object permanence: realization objects continue to exist even after they are removed from view o cause-effect relationships preoperational stage (2-7 years) o semiotic function (ability to use symbols) o think about objects beyond immediate view o schemes independent of immediate perceptions & behaviours o language skills explode o one-way logic o difficulty with principle of conservation: realization if nothing is added or taken away amount stays the same regardless of alternations in shape/arrangement o egocentrism: inability to view situations from another person’s perspective collective monologue concrete operations stage (7-11 years) o concrete thinking (hands on thinking)
EDPE 300: MIDTERM CONTENT
Fall 2012
o o o o
identity compensation reversibility multiple classification: recognition that objects may belong to several categories at once o seriation formal operations stage (12+) o “scientific” reasoning o abstract thinking o hypothetico-deductive reasoning o adolescent egocentrism: inability of individuals to separate their own abstract logic from the perspectives of others and from practical considerations o imaginary audience (not reached by all)
Implications for Teachers gives understanding of how students’ think (match teaching approach to cognitive stage) since learners construct knowledge teachers can build on what is learned learners learn through play disequilibrium motivates learning Teaching the Preoperational Child use concrete props & visual aids make instruction short; use actions & words don’t expect students to be consistent in ability to see world from another point of view be sensitive to possibility children may have different meanings for same word or different words for same meaning provide hands on practice provide wide variety of experiences to build foundation for concept learning & language Teaching the Concrete Operational Child continue using props & visual aids continue giving students change to manipulate & test objects keep presentations/readings brief & well organized use familiar examples give opportunity to classify & group objects/ideas present problems with logical & analytical thinking Helping Students Use Formal Operations continue to use concrete operational teaching strategies & materials give opportunity to explore many hypothetical questions give opportunity to solve problems & reason scientifically teach broad concepts & not just facts use materials/ideas relevant to students’ lives
EDPE 300: MIDTERM CONTENT
Fall 2012
Teacher’s Casebook The provincial curriculum guide calls for a unit on symbolism in poems. You are concerned that any of your grade 5 students may not be ready to understand this abstract concept. To test the waters you ask a few students to describe a symbol. “It’s sorts like a big metal thing that you bang together.” “My sister plays one in the high school band” Sean adds. You realize that they are on the wrong track here so you try again, “I was thinking of a different kind of symbol . . . like a heart as a symbol of love.” You are met with blank stares. Trevor ventures, “You mean like the Olympic torch?” “And what does that symbolizes, Trevor?” you ask. “I said the torch.” Trevor wonders how you could be so dense. “*…+ To develop the concept of symbol I would first design activities in which students could engage independently or in small groups. For example, I might engage students in a matching activity that requires them to identify the symbolic meaning of concrete or real-life objects. I might create a worksheet that includes two lists: one list would include real-world objects, such as a dove or a heart (this list might be presented as pictures); the second list would include descriptions of the symbolic meaning of each object. Students would match the picture of the dove with peace. … I might ask the students to generate their own symbols…”
Vygotsky
social interactions shape learning knowledge is co-constructed adults and peers scaffold Private Speech and Self Talk private speech: when thought and language merge self talk: talking to oneself as a way of guiding oneself through a task Piaget Vygotsky Developmental Significance not yet able to converse externalized thinking increases in youth, then is Course of Development declines with age internalized Relationship to Social negative; immature positive; prompted Relationship to Piaget did not comment increases with task difficulty Environmental Context Zone of Proximal Development zone of proximal development: range of tasks between actual development level and level of potential development o actual development level: extent to which one can successfully perform task independently o level of potential development: extent to which one can successfully execute task with assistance of a more competent individual scaffolding: support mechanism provided by more competent individual that helps learner successfully perform task within their ZPD fading: gradually withdraw support mechanisms
EDPE 300: MIDTERM CONTENT Limitations humans may be more biologically predisposed to learn consists mostly of general ideas Implications for Teachers role of adults and peers o socially constructed meaning o guided participation (assisted learning) o mediated learning experiences o apprenticeship o cognitive apprenticeship (features) o peer interaction teaching with technology understanding and building on students’ thinking activity and constructing knowledge value of play
Information Processing View
brain is a computer as children mature their brain develops
Attention attention: the focusing of mental processes on particular environmental stimuli attention span increases over time (exception: ADD) relevant content yields better learning how & what children learn depends on what they intend to learn
Fall 2012
EDPE 300: MIDTERM CONTENT
Fall 2012
Learning Strategies learning strategies: one or more cognitive processes used intentionally for a particular learning task rehearsal: information is repeated over and over as a possible way of learning & remembering o develops in elementary school years o chanting, assimilation of words with rhythm, writing notes multiple times organization: learners find connections among information they need to learn o improves & continues to develop through childhood o forming categories, cause-effect relationships elaboration: cognitive process in which learners expand on new information based on what they already know become more sophisticated over time Knowledge Base knowledge base: one’s knowledge about specific topics and the world in general amount of knowledge increases over time & becomes increasingly more integrated Metacognition metacognition: one’s knowledge and beliefs about one’s own cognitive processes and one’s resulting attempts to regulate those cognitive processes to maximize learning and memory as children mature they become more aware of their memory limitations children become more knowledgeable about effective learning strategies
3: PERSONAL, SOCIAL AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT Personal Development Erik Erikson’s 8 Psychosocial Stages emphasized emergence of self, search for identity, relationships & role of culture 8 individual stages o trust vs. mistrust infancy 0-1 year; feeding o autonomy vs. shame and doubt toddler 1-2 years; toilet training o initiative vs. guilt early childhood 2-6 years; independence o industry vs. inferiority elementary-middle 6-12 years; school o identity vs. role confusion adolescence 12-18 years; peer relationships o intimacy vs. isolation young adulthood; love relationships o generativity vs. stagnation middle adulthood; parenting o integrity vs. despair late adulthood; reflection on & acceptance of one’s life Marcia’s Patterns of Identity Status identity: self constructed definition of who a person thinks they are and what’s important in life identity diffusion o no commitment to particular career path or ideological belief system
EDPE 300: MIDTERM CONTENT
Fall 2012
o some experimentation, but n o serious exploration of issues related to self definition foreclosure o firm commitment to occupation & set of beliefs o choices based largely on others moratorium o no strong commitment to occupation & set of beliefs but actively exploring o undergoing identity crisis identity achievement o previously gone through moratorium o emerged with commitment to particular political or religious beliefs & clear occupation choice
Implications of Erikson’s Theory initiative (preschool) o allow limited choices that will often result in success o encourage make-believe around stories of interest o be tolerant of mistakes especially when children attempt to do something on their own industry (elementary and middle school) o help students set & achieve realistic goals o allow for & support opportunities to be independent identity (adolescence) o supply variety of positive role models o help students find resources to solve personal problems o be tolerant of fads if they don’t offend others or interfere with teaching o give students realistic feedback about themselves
Social Development Peer Relationships classroom is a social place interactions allow individuals to learn & practice social skills offer social & emotional support influential socialization agents peer pressure: students’ peers strongly encourage some behaviours and discourage others Friendships close friends usually same age, gender, race emotional investment help boost self esteem and bring a sense of belonging Larger Social Groups enjoy company of many peers to form large social groups members feel loyalty to one another & hostility towards members of other groups groups attach names to other groups (jocks, geeks, etc.)
EDPE 300: MIDTERM CONTENT
Fall 2012
3 distinct types of groups during adolescence o clique: moderately stable friendship group of 3-10 members o subculture: resists dominant culture & adopts own norms o gang: cohesive small group characterized by initiation rites, distinctive colour/symbols, territorial orientation & feuds with rival groups
Romantic Relationships addresses student need for companionship, affection, security, social skills and interpersonal behaviours extreme mood swings difficulty coping with emotions elementary – middle school o crushes based on physical appearance o social status o limited interactions high school o long term relationships (more interaction, sexual intimacy) o mixed feelings about sexuality o sexual identity (homosexuality) Fostering Social Skills social skills: behaviours that enable a person to interact effectively with others prosocial behaviour: when someone uses social skills that benefit someone else rather than ourselves; ie/ sharing, helping, comforting, etc. How Teachers Can Help provide numerous opportunities for social interaction plan co-operative activities help students interpret social situations label and praise appropriate behaviours teach social problem-solving strategies establish and enforce classroom rules prevent and manage peer harassment
5: BEHAVIOURIST VIEW OF LEARNING Learning Definition of Learning permanent change in behaviour and/or knowledge result of experience not result of maturation or temporary conditions (illness)
EDPE 300: MIDTERM CONTENT
Fall 2012
Assumptions students’ behaviours result from interaction (experience) with environmental stimuli relationships among observable events learning involves a behaviour change contiguity learning o repeated pairing = association of two events o stimulus = 1st event, response = memory of the 2nd event o ie/ 7 x 8 = 56 o ie/ hear state name = remember capital
Conditioning Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov & dog salivation experiment classical conditioning: form of learning whereby a new, involuntary response is acquired as a result of two stimuli being present at the same time neutral stimulus unconditioned stimulus response conditioned stimulus conditioned response unconditioned stimulus: stimulus that without prior learning elicits particular response unconditioned response: response that without prior learned is elicited by a particular stimulus neutral stimulus: stimulus that doesn’t elicits any particular behaviour conditioned stimulus: stimulus that begins to elicit a particular response conditioned response: response that begins to be elicited by a particular behaviour Operant Conditioning operant conditioning: form of learning whereby a voluntary response increases a frequency as a result of it being followed by reinforcement when behaviour followed by desirable consequence, increases in frequency when behaviour doesn’t produce results, decreases in frequency Classic vs. Operant Conditioning classical = involuntary response caused by pairing of two stimuli operant = voluntary response caused by reinforcement Reinforcement reinforcement: act of following a particular response with a reinforcer & thereby increasing frequency of that response positive reinforcement: consequence that brings about increase of behaviour through presentation of a stimulus o concrete reinforcer can be touched o social reinforcer gesture/sign o activity reinforcer opportunity to engage in favourite activity
EDPE 300: MIDTERM CONTENT
Fall 2012
Premack principle: phenomenon whereby individuals do less-preferred activities in order to engage in more-preferred activities o positive feedback mess that answer/task is correct o extrinsic reinforcer comes from outside environment o intrinsic reinforcer provided by self negative reinforcement: consequence that brings about the increase of a behaviour through the removal of a stimulus
Reinforcement Schedules continuous: reinforcement after every response turning on television o rapid learning of response o very little persistence when reinforcement stops fixed interval: reinforcement after a set period of time weekly quiz o response rate increases as time for reinforcement approaches then drops o little persistence, rapid drop in response rate when time for reinforcement passes & no reinforcer appears variable interval: reinforcement after varying lengths of time pop quiz o slow, steady rate of responding; very little pause after reinforcement o greater persistence; slow decline in response rate fixed ratio: reinforcement after a set number of responses piece work, bake sale o rapid response rate; pause after reinforcement o little persistence; rapid drop in response rate when expected number of responses given & no reinforcer appears variable ratio: reinforcement after a varying number of responses slot machines o very high response rate; little pause after reinforcement o greatest persistence; response rate stays high & gradually drops off Punishment presentation punishment: adverse or unpleasant consequences removal punishment: loss of privileges or desired outcomes use two pronged approach o provide punishment for undesired behaviour simultaneously o clarify & reinforce desired behaviour be consistent
6: COGNITIVE VIEWS OF LEARNING Memory System
memory: the learner’s ability to save something mentally storage: process of putting new information into our memory encoding: process of changing format of new information as it is being stored into our memory o ie/ apple = type of fruit that grows on trees retrieval: the way one goes about “finding” information that has already been stored in their memory
EDPE 300: MIDTERM CONTENT
Fall 2012
Sensory Memory capacity: very large duration: very short (1-3 seconds) purpose: process sensations Working Memory capacity: limited (5-9 separate items) duration: 5 – 20 seconds purpose: temporary storage and active processing Long Term Memory capacity: relatively unlimited duration: relatively unlimited purpose: long term storage retrieval o spread of activation o reconstruction forgetting o failure to retrieve: failing to locate information that currently exists o reconstruction error: constructing a logical but incorrect memory o interferences: phenomenon whereby something stored in long term memory inhibits one’s ability to remember something else correctly o decay: hypothesized weakening over time of information stored in long-term memory o failure to store: failure to mentally process information in ways that promote its storage in long term memory differences o declarative knowledge = what o procedural knowledge = how o conditional knowledge = when & why Implications for Teaching encoding o help students store more information by presenting information visually, auditorily and/or semantically o students can be auditory or visual learners o useful for studying retrieval o students need retrieval practice to ensure information is stored and remembered o information will be forgotten if it is not at least occasionally reviewed
7: CONSTRUCTIVIST VIEW OF LEARNING Complex Cognitive Processes I
EDPE 300: MIDTERM CONTENT
Fall 2012
Definition of Learning individual constructivism: theoretical perspective that focuses on how people as individuals construct meaning from the events around them social constructivism: theoretical perspective that emphasizes that an individual’s meaning making/learning is mediated by adults/more knowledgeable peers even though it is ultimately constructed by the individual learner Learning and Teaching Concepts concepts o general categories of similar ideas, events, objects, people, etc. o abstractions o ways to organize information prototype o best representative of a category exemplar o specific example of a prototype schemas o schematic knowledge related to the concept Strategies for Teaching Concepts concept attainment lesson components o examples & nonexamples o relevant & irrelevant attributes o name o definition (general & attribute) lesson structure o examples prevent undergeneralization: overly narrow view of what objects/events a concept includes o nonexamples prevent overgeneralization: overly broad view of what objects/events a concept includes extend & connect concepts (interconnectedness) use visual aids concept mapping Concept Attainment: Lesson Structure phase 1: presentation of data & identification of concept present labeled examples students compare negative & positive examples students generate & test hypotheses students state a definition according to essential attributes phase 2: testing attainment of the concept students identify additional unlabeled examples as “yes” or “no” teacher confirms hypothesis, names concept, restates definitions
EDPE 300: MIDTERM CONTENT
Fall 2012
students generate examples phase 3 : analysis of thinking strategies students describe their thoughts students discuss role of hypothesis and attributes students discuss types and number of hypotheses
Promoting Conceptual Change: Correcting Misconceptions probe students’ understanding (pretest or discussion questions) expose students to information that contradicts their beliefs demonstrate how correct explanations connect to their own personal interest listen to your students Effective Knowledge Construction provide opportunities for experimentation emphasize conceptual understanding present ideas of others use authentic activities: classroom activity similar to one students are likely to encounter in outside world promote dialogue create community of learners: classroom in which teacher & students actively and collaboratively work to help one another learn
Complex Cognitive Processes II Problem Solving problem exploration solution debate: general or domain specific? IDEAL: heuristic for problem solving o Identify the problem & opportunities o Define goals and represent the problem o Explore possible strategies o Anticipate & act on the strategies o Look back & learn from the effects of your strategies Defining Goals & Representing the Problem focusing attention understanding the words: part or whole relevance understanding the whole problem translation and schema training results of problem representation Exploring Possible Solutions algorithm: prescribed sequence of steps that guarantees a correct problem solution heuristic: general problem solving strategy that may or may not yield a problem solution
EDPE 300: MIDTERM CONTENT o o o o
Fall 2012
means-ends analysis working backwards analogical thinking verbalization
Effective Problem Solving anticipate, act, look back o anticipate consequences o act on best solution o look back and evaluate your success overcome factors that hinder solutions o functional fixedness & response set o confirmation bias & belief perseverance o lack of flexibility Effective Learning Strategies identify important information take notes o helps students focus attention & encode information o gives outlet for external storage of information retrieval organize o concept map elaborate o elaborative interrogation: strategy in which students develop & answer knowledge expecting questions about material they are trying to learn summarize monitor comprehension o comprehension monitoring: process of checking oneself to make sure one understand the things being read or heard o illusion of knowing: thinking one knows something that one actually does not know o self questioning: process of asking oneself questions as a way of checking one’s understanding of a topic
8: SOCIO-COGNITIVE THEORY Observational Learning Modelling modeling: form of learning where individuals learn by observing other people and then by copying them learn motor skills, academic skills, interpersonal skills & moral values learn from live models & symbolic models
EDPE 300: MIDTERM CONTENT
Fall 2012
4 Types of Effect Modelling Has on Behaviour observational learning effect: occurs when an observer acquires a new behaviour after watching someone else demonstrate it response facilitation effect: occurs when an observer displays a previously learned behaviour more frequently after seeing someone else being reinforced for that behaviour response inhibition effect: occurs when an observer displays a previously learned behaviour less frequently after seeing someone else being punished for that behaviour response disinhibition effect: occurs when an observer displays a previously forbidden or punished behaviour more frequently after seeing someone else exhibit that behaviour without adverse consequences 4 Main Characteristics of Effective Models competence will imitate people who do something well prestige and power imitate people who are famous or powerful “sex appropriate” behaviour model behaviours they think are appropriate for their sex behaviour relevant to the learner’s own situation teachers must show students who their behaviours are applicable to the student’s situation Helping Students Learn from Models attention o must observe carefully before imitating model retention o must memorize what model does o more effective in remembering if taught it more than one way o descriptive labels on behaviours that are difficult to remember motor reproduction o must be able to physically reproduce model’s behaviour o to be more effective repeat immediately after demonstration/behaviour & accompany it by verbal guidance/feedback motivation o must be motivated to demonstrate what they have observed & remembered Vicarious Experiences vicarious reinforcement: phenomenon whereby response increases in frequency when another person is reinforced for that response vicarious punishment: phenomenon whereby response decreases in frequency when another person is punished for that response
EDPE 300: MIDTERM CONTENT
Fall 2012
Reciprocal Determinism (Causation)
Personal Factors goals, self-efficacy, outcome expectation, self evaluation, self-regulatory progress
Social Influences (Environment) models, instruction, feedback
Applying Social Cognitive Theory self efficacy & motivation teachers’ sense of efficacy self-regulated learning o knowledge o motivation o volition (self discipline) teaching self efficacy & self regulation Self-Regulating Students know themselves know & apply successful strategies recognize & differentiate contexts motivated to learn manage their own volition Teacher Strategies to Increase Self Regulation employ complex or thematic learning units o teach problem-solving transfer o have students set short term goals o teach strategies (outline, note taking) o reward achievement not simply engagement share locus of control (offer choice) formal & informal self evaluation collaborative work structures (shared problem solving)
Achievement Outcomes (Behaviour) goal progress, motivation, learning
