B I B L I C A L
B I B L I C A L
Your Guide to the Practices, Peoples, and Places of Scripture
XERXES I His Life and Times Under His Wings Armor as Biblical Imagery
winter 2014-15 volume 41 number 2
Eric Geiger Vice President, Church Resources
I
G. B. Howell, Jr. Content Editor Philip Nation Director, Adult Ministry Publishing Faith Whatley Director, Adult Ministry Send questions/comments to: Content Editor, Biblical Illustrator One LifeWay Plaza Nashville, TN 37234-0175 Or make comments on the Web at www.lifeway.com @B_Illustrator visit www.lifeway.com/biblicalillustrator Biblical Illustrator (ISSN 0195-1351, Item 005075109) is published quarterly by LifeWay, One LifeWay Plaza, Nashville, TN 37234, Thom S. Rainer, President. © 2014 LifeWay. For ordering or inquiries visit www.lifeway.com, or write LifeWay Customer Service, One LifeWay Plaza, Nashville, TN 37234-0113. For subscriptions or subscription address changes, e-mail [email protected], fax (615) 251-5818, or write to the above address. For bulk shipments mailed quarterly to one address, fax (615) 251-5933, e-mail orderentry@ lifeway.com, or write to the above address. Annual individual subscription, $25.00. Bulk shipments mailed quarterly to one address when ordered with other literature, $5.95 each per quarter, plus shipping. Please allow six to eight weeks for arrival of first issue. Biblical Illustrator is designed to support the Sunday School lessons in the student and adult Bible Studies for Life curriculum, The Gospel Project curriculum, and the Explore the Bible series. Bible background articles and accompanying illustrative material are based on the passages studied in these curriculum series. We believe that the Bible has God for its author; salvation for its end; and truth, without any mixture of error, for its matter and that all Scripture is totally true and trustworthy. To review LifeWay’s doctrinal guideline, please visit www.lifeway.com/doctrinalguideline. Scripture quotations marked (HCSB) are from the Holman Christian Standard Bible®, Copyright © 1999, 2000, 2002, 2003, 2009 by Holman Bible Publishers. Used by permission. Holman Christian Standard Bible®, Holman CSB®, and HCSB® are federally registered trademarks of Holman Bible Publishers. Scripture quotations marked (ESV) are from English Standard Version® (The Holy Bible, English Standard Version®), copyright © 2001 by Crossway, a publishing ministry of Good News Publishers. Used by permission. All rights reserved. Scripture quotations marked (NASB) are from the New American Standard Bible®, Copyright © 1960, 1962, 1963, 1968, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1977, 1995 by The Lockman Foundation. Used by permission. (www.lockman.org) Scripture quotations marked (NIV) are taken from the Holy Bible, New International Version®, NIV®. Copyright © 1973, 1978, 1984, 2011 by Biblica, Inc® Used by permission of Zondervan. All rights reserved worldwide. www.zondervan.com The “NIV” and “New International Version” are trademarks registered in the United States Patent and Trademark Office by Biblica, Inc.(R). Scripture quotations marked (NKJV) are from the New King James Version. Copyright © 1979, 1980, 1982, Thomas Nelson, Inc., Publishers. Scripture quotations marked (NET) are from the NET Bible® copyright ©1996-2006 by Biblical Studies Press, L.L.C. http://netbible.com All rights reserved. Scripture quotations marked (NLT) are from the Holy Bible, New Living Translation, copyright © 1996. Used by permission of Tyndale House Publishers, Inc., Wheaton, IL 60189 USA. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America
B I B L I C A L
volume 41 number 2
winter 2014-15
B I B L I C A L I L L U S T R AT O R X E R X E S I I U N D E R H I S W I N G S I A R M O R A S I M AG E RY
AM PLEASED to highlight the work of one of our esteemed archaeologists, Dr. Steven Ortiz, who is professor of Old Testament and archaeology at Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary. Since 2006 he has led a team of archaeologists and volunteers in a dig at Gezer, Israel. Illustrator: Dr. Ortiz, will you be leading a dig at Gezer in 2015? Ortiz: Yes, we plan to be there. Illustrator: What is significant about Gezer? Ortiz: Gezer is well known from ancient Egyptian and Assyrian texts. It was one of three cities that Solomon fortified (1 Kings 9:15). The king of Gezer organized a coalition against the Israelites. The Canaanites always held the city until Egypt conquered and gave it as a dowry to Solomon’s wife. It guarded the pass from the coastal highway up to the Judean hill country. So it was significant in the Old Testament Era. Illustrator: What have you found in your excavations? Ortiz: Gezer has a long history of excavations, therefore we were not expecting to contribute much to what has already been discovered. Yet our excavations have uncovered a major Iron Age I city wall. In 1 Samuel 20, we have David chasing the Philistines “as far as Gezer.” Now with this massive city wall, we know why David stopped. During that period Gezer was a major city; the Philistines felt safe once they were there. In addition we have uncovered a major Late Bronze Age (Canaanite city, 14th century b.c.) occupation that was destroyed. We have uncovered one of the largest Israelite four-room houses as well as the city plan of possibly Uzziah. Next summer we hope to uncover the city of Solomonic fame. Illustrator: Are you looking for volunteers for 2015? Ortiz: Yes, of course. We accept students and lay people alike. We have 11 year olds (if they come with a parent) up to people in their 70s. You do not need any experience, only a desire to uncover biblical history and contribute to the discipline of biblical archaeology. If anybody is interested, they can go to our website, www.telgezer.com; they can go to the Southwestern website or email me [email protected]. Illustrator: Dr. Ortiz, thank you for your time and for the work you are doing. Ortiz: Thank you.
XERXES I His Life and Times Under His Wings Armor as Biblical Imagery
1105
WINTER 2014-15
About the Cover: Double bull capital from Persepolis from the reigns of Darius I and Xerxes (522465 B.C.). The roof of the audience hall was supported by 36 columns. The capitals were formed by the forequarters of two bulls joined at the middle. Beams rested between the bulls. ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ BRENT BRUCE/ ORIENTAL MUSEUM/ CHICAGO (70/9197)
I
On a scale of 1-10, this book receives a rating of 8 camels.
Warfare in the Old Testament, Boyd Seevers. Kregel Academic, 2013; 320 pages; hardback; ISBN 978-0-8254-3655-0. Book reviews are limited to those the Illustrator staff feels confident to recommend, based on ease of reading, quality of content, and doctrinal viewpoint. Each book is reviewed within the guidelines of The Baptist Faith and Message. The 1 to 10 scale reflects overall quality and usefulness.
YES!
N HIS BOOK, Warfare in the Old Testament: The Organization, Weapons, and Tactics of Ancient Near Eastern Armies, Boyd Seevers intends to illuminate the cultural context of warfare within the Old Testament. He shows how context can help us better understand the biblical message, specifically related to warfare. Using archaeological evidence and ancient texts, Seevers adeptly presents the historical and military backgrounds of Israel, Egypt, Philistia, Assyria, Babylon, and Persia. He writes to fill in contextual gaps the ancient audience would have understood but modern readers miss. Seevers offers abundant background material—enough to be especially helpful for those interested in biblical context and content. However, while his explanations of context are most often spot on . . . some are speculative. He offers fictionalized historical accounts about possibilities and likelihoods at the beginning of each major section. While nice, these are, at times, reaching. The concern is that some readers may view this material as being factual. Adding to the reconstructions some endnotes with source material would have been helpful. The more serious issue arises when
Seevers’ statements fail to align with Scripture. For example Seevers states both in his fictionalized reconstruction and in his non-fiction text that only the Israelite soldiers crossed the Jordan to Gilgal, while the non-combatant Israelites stayed across the Jordan (p. 25, 69). Joshua states, however, “all Israel crossed over” (3:17, nkjv); and while Reuben’s, Gad’s, and Manasseh’s warriors crossed over, their families remained (1:12‑18; 4:12). This type of error is disappointing. Further, not all conservative Bible readers will agree with Seevers’ low numbers for the exodus (he interprets the Hebrew term eleph as military unit rather than thousand), but he makes a good presentation of the issue. Color makes the book easier to read; unfortunately Seevers includes only five color illustrations; more would improve. Though color, the maps lack the quality and detail of maps in the back of most Bibles. For background information about ancient warfare, this is an excellent resource; for accuracy, though, read with a Bible in hand. I Eric A. Mitchell is assistant professor of biblical backgrounds and archaeology at Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary, Fort Worth, Texas.
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Contents
WINTER 2014-2015 VOLUME 41 NUMBER 2
DEPARTMENTS 2
BI Lines
71 Under His Wings by Tom Goodman January 11 // Session 6
3
BI the Book: Warfare in the Old Testament By Boyd Seevers Book review by Eric A. Mitchell
53 To Be a Stranger by Byron Longino January 18 // Session 1
InSites (between pages 66-67) Rule of the Achaemenid Kings Rulers, Religion, and Ancient Coins
82 Paul and the Corinthian Church by Cecil R. Taylor February 1 // Session 3
98 Issues Gone BI
31 Morality in First-Century Rome by Bennie R. Crockett, Jr. February 15 // Session 5
BIBLE STUDIES FOR LIFE 10
Valleys and Pastures: A Geographical Overview of Ancient Israel by R. Dennis Cole December 7 // Session 1
14
Our Forgiving God: Unique Among Ancient Religions? by Blakeley Winslow December 21 // Session 3
46
Waterfalls and Wadis: Water Imagery in the Psalms by R. Kelvin Moore December 28 // Session 4
19 “Sanctification” in 1 Thessalonians by Shawn L. Buice February 22 // Session 6 EXPLORE THE BIBLE 62 Xerxes I: His Life and Times by Joseph R. Cathey December 7 // Session 1
InSites: Rule of the Achaemenid Kings December 7 // Session 1
6
Reversals in the Book of Esther by D. Larry Gregg, Sr. December 14 // Session 2
78
4 BIBLICAL ILLUSTRATOR / WINTER 2014-15
62
S E E R E L AT E D B I B L E S T U D Y R E S O U R C E S :
www.GospelProject.com • www.BibleStudiesForLife.com • www.lifeway.com/ExploreTheBible
94 Ancient Lebanon by John Traylor December 28 // Session 4
InSites: Rulers, Religion, and Ancient Coins December 21 // Session 3
67 Trade and Wealth in the Ancient World by Robert D. Bergen December 21 // Session 3
86 Returning to Judah by T. J. Betts January 4 // Session 5
27 Sheol: An Old Testament Understanding by J. Mark Terry December 28 // Session 4
22 Nehemiah’s Wall in Jerusalem by Joel F. Drinkard, Jr. January 11 // Session 6
78 The Poor: An Old Testament Perspective by J. Alan Branch January 4 // Session 5
35 Sanballat & Tobiah by George H. Shaddix January 25 // Session 8
19 “Sanctification” in 1 Thessalonians by Shawn L. Buice January 11, February 8 // Session 6
75 Gates and Gatekeepers by Scott Hummel February 1 // Session 9 38 Temple Personnel in Nehemiah’s Day by E. LeBron Matthews February 22 // Session 12
56 Not Ashamed: Why It Mattered by G. Al Wright, Jr. February 1 // Session 3 42 Agrippa II by Warren McWilliams February 8 // Session 3
THE GOSPEL PROJECT 58 Herod’s Temple by Timothy Trammell December 7 // Session 1
49 Savior: A Word Study by Mark R. Dunn February 15 // Session 4
90 Armor as Biblical Imagery by Argile A. Smith, Jr. December 14 // Session 2
19
67
WINTER 2014-15 / BIBLICAL ILLUSTRATOR
5
By D. Larry Gregg, Sr.
DICE: ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ BRITISH MUSEUM/ LONDON (31/28/29-30)
ETB: Book of Esther
FIGURINE: ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ DAVID ROGERS/ MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS/ BOSTON (316/1)
. . . we should be careful about the literal and figurative gallows we erect for our enemies; we may inadvertently hang ourselves upon them.
6 BIBLICAL ILLUSTRATOR / WINTER 2014-15
ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ MURRAY SEVERANCE (74-1-18)
S
OME SUGGEST THAT, BECAUSE OF THE commonalities of human nature, people actually share a limited number of primary human interaction stories; all others are more or less complex variations of a finite number of universal themes. Like the primary colors of the visual palette from which a multitude of shades and hues come, humanity’s basic physiological and psychosocial drives provide the substratum underlying all our stories—from the most epic and enduring to the most petty and transitory. If this hypothesis has any validity, it may go far to explain the enduring quality of the Book of Esther and its inclusion in the Old Testament canon despite a lack of
Upper left: Dice made of bone and agate. Left: Figurine of two girls playing knuckle bones. The bones, each of whose six faces
were different, could be used as dice. The Feast of Purim comes from the word “pur,” which translates “lot.” Haman cast lots to ascertain a favorable day for
carrying out his scheme (Esth. 3:7). Above: Glazed tile wall decoration with a mythical winged creature; from the palace at Susa.
certain characteristics ordinarily found in other biblical literature.1 Although the book does not mention God, most readers will readily recognized that He was at work, behind the scenes, delivering His people from a threat of certain death. Thus while Esther may be lacking in overt theology and spiritually, it does have more than ample quantities of corruption and integrity, greed and self-sacrifice, betrayal and faithfulness, wisdom and cunning, duplicity and nobility, drama, prejudice, pandering, and intrigue. Some believe the original writer’s intent may simply have been to provide a justification for the Jewish observance of the Festival of Purim.2 This writer would argue that Esther’s ultimate inclusion in the biblical canon was based more upon what the narrative discloses about human nature than upon concerns about the nature of God. Esther is not a conduit of revelation concerning the qualities and character of God; it is a mirror reflecting back upon the reader the core qualities and character of human beings, both positive and negative. Writers of dramatic literature understand that a good plot grasps the reader’s attention and generates a desire to know more. However, certain literary devices move the plot along WINTER 2014-15 / BIBLICAL ILLUSTRATOR
7
interpreted her refusal as both defiance of the king’s command and as an attempt to undermine husbands’ authority over their wives. The king’s best advisors recommended that he make an example of Vashti, the royal consort, in order to discourage similar behavior on the part of other wives toward their spouses. In contrast, we read of the rather compliant nature of Hadassah (Esther), the orphaned Jewess, who is routinely obedient to her uncle, Mordecai, the king’s eunuch Hegai, and King Ahasuerus (Xerxes I) himself, resulting in both her elevation to be queen and, ultimately, to becoming the providential instrument for her people’s salvation. The lesson seems clear: open defiance can lead to downfall while humble obedience and willingness to adapt to changing circumstances can eventually lead to triumph. Right: Celebrating Purim, street performer participating in a pedestrian parade in part of Old Jerusalem. Below: Bronze dagger from the area of ancient Susa; dated to the 3rd millennium B.C.
ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ MICAH KANDROS (3593/84)
toward the ultimate climax of the story. For the writer of Esther, the literary device of reversal serves as the primary vehicle for moving the story line relentlessly toward its dramatic denouement.3 One finds an almost antithetical structure in which the characters trade roles of pride, prominence, power, and prestige for those of humility, marginalization, weakness, and dishonor. Because of the multiple changes of fortune in Esther, some blatant and others more subtle, the writer comes near to overusing the motif of reversal. Among the most obvious reversals are the following: (1) Queen Vashti in contrast with Esther, (2) the assassins in contrast with Mordecai, (3) the Agagites in contrast with the Benjaminites, (4) Haman in contrast with Mordecai, and (5) the destruction of the Jews’ enemies in contrast with the Jews’ vindication and victory. While this list does not exhaust the instances of reversal in Esther, reflecting upon them may reveal something of the concerns of the book’s writer. Believers can benefit from examining the writer’s concerns through the lens of God’s ultimate revelation of Himself in the person and work of Jesus Christ—prior to arriving at any applications they may have for contemporary Christian living. Finding an explicit reason for Vashti’s refusal to appear, at the king’s command, at the celebratory banquet is difficult (see Esth. 1:12). Whatever Vashti’s reasons, observers
Bottom: Model of the palace at Susa.
COURTESY OF SOUTHERN ADVENTIST UNIVERSITY/ CHATTANOOGA, TN
ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ BRITISH MUSEUM/ LONDON (31/12/16)
8 BIBLICAL ILLUSTRATOR / WINTER 2014-15
BOWL: ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ BOB SCHATZ/ ROYAL ONTARIO MUSEUM/ TORONTO (29/15/12)
Right: Drinking bowl found at Susa, which is the biblical city of Shushan, or at Persepolis. Dated 559–330 B.C.
Far right: Plaque of a Parthian banqueter holding a drinking cup and reclining on a couch.
In the narrative of the intrigue of the king’s eunuchs to assassinate him, we are presented with an instance of what happens when people overreach themselves (2:21‑23). We are not told the source of these men’s anger; rather, the point seems to be to illustrate the consequences of faithfulness versus unfaithfulness. While the conspirators and Mordecai held similar places of authority and trust in the king’s household, Mordecai used his position to protect rather than destroy the king. The fact that Mordecai’s role in foiling the assassins remained in the background for an extended period serves to prove that his motivation was loyalty and faithfulness rather than anger and ambition. To understand the ethnic tension between Agagites and Benjaminites, illustrated in Haman’s hatred for Mordecai, one must look to 1 Samuel 15. There we find the story of how God, through the prophet Samuel, instructed Saul to exterminate the Amalekites and all they possessed (1 Sam. 15:3). After achieving victory over King Agag and the Amalekites, Saul, in disobedience to God’s instructions, spared the life of the defeated king and used the booty of the conquest to reward himself and his soldiers. The consequence of this disobedience was Saul being rejected as Israel’s king and continued ethnic strife between Israelites and Amalekites in the following generations (1 Sam. 30). The Hebrew term for wiping out a people is herem. The word can refer to “exterminating inhabitants, and destroying or appropriating their possessions.”4 This is not the place to explore the social, moral, or theological implications of the concept of herem5 commonly practiced among ancient peoples. However, the continuing enmities among contemporary ethnicities reaching back across hundreds and thousands of years illustrate the irrational and tragic willingness of some ethnic groups to seek the extermination of others. In our quickness to condemn those of the past for their atrocities, let us not be blind to the willingness of many to justify similar atrocities in the present. Esther reminds us that those originally marked for extermination may later became the exterminators. And we must keep in mind that these socially and culturally inherited prejudices inform how we relate to particular individuals in our own lives. A little Haman and a little Mordecai likely resides in all of us, and we should be careful about the literal and figurative gallows we erect for our enemies; we may inadvertently hang ourselves upon them.
ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ BRITISH MUSEUM/ LONDON (31/13/52)
Do the reversals in Esther and their lessons for human interaction suggest anything about ultimate realities? I am inclined to think they do. Among them I suggest: (1) We all stand close to our immediate circumstances and concerns; only as we develop the capacity to distance ourselves somewhat can we perceive the workings of Divine Providence in our own actions and in the actions of others. (2) Fatalistic acceptance of circumstances is not necessarily synonymous with being in God’s will. Both Mordecai and Esther risked themselves in order to alter positively their own futures and those of others. In doing so, they were the instruments of Divine purpose whether they realized it or not. (3) The value of one’s personhood must be measured on the basis of what he does with what he has rather than in comparison with what someone does with what she or he has. The narrative in Esther demonstrates that the various courses of these persons’ lives, to a significant degree, were determined by their individual stewardship of the gifts they possessed and the positions they occupied. (4) Finally, Esther’s inclusion in the biblical canon, despite its various limitations, reminds us that the final determinate of our value does not lie within ourselves; it is found in the unmerited grace of the One who caused us to be and who sustains our being. I 1. Balmer H. Kelly, “The Book of Esther” in The Layman’s Bible Commentary, vol. 8 (Richmond: John Knox, 1962), 41. 2. Reidar B. Bjornard, “Esther,” in The Broadman Bible Commentary, vol. 4, EstherPsalms (Nashville: Broadman, 1971), 2. 3. Frederic W. Bush, Esther, vol. 9 in Word Biblical Commentary (Dallas: Word Books, 1996), 323. 4. This herem–which refers to the wiping out of a people–should not be confused with a harem, which refers to the concubines or wives of a man in a polygamous culture. See mr;x' (charam, haram; to ban or exterminate) in Francis Brown, S. R. Driver, and Charles A. Briggs, The Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 1996), 355. 5. See Johnny L. Wilson, “Holy War” in Mercer Dictionary of the Bible, gen. ed. Watson E. Mills (Macon, GA: Mercer Univ. Press, 1990), 385-86.
D. Larry Gregg, Sr., president of Covecraft Consultants, lives in Rutherfordton, North Carolina. WINTER 2014-15 / BIBLICAL ILLUSTRATOR
9
Your Guide to the Practices, Peoples, and Places of Scripture
XERXES I His Life and Times Under His Wings Armor as Biblical Imagery
winter 2014-15 volume 41 number 2
Eric Geiger Vice President, Church Resources
I
G. B. Howell, Jr. Content Editor Philip Nation Director, Adult Ministry Publishing Faith Whatley Director, Adult Ministry Send questions/comments to: Content Editor, Biblical Illustrator One LifeWay Plaza Nashville, TN 37234-0175 Or make comments on the Web at www.lifeway.com @B_Illustrator visit www.lifeway.com/biblicalillustrator Biblical Illustrator (ISSN 0195-1351, Item 005075109) is published quarterly by LifeWay, One LifeWay Plaza, Nashville, TN 37234, Thom S. Rainer, President. © 2014 LifeWay. For ordering or inquiries visit www.lifeway.com, or write LifeWay Customer Service, One LifeWay Plaza, Nashville, TN 37234-0113. For subscriptions or subscription address changes, e-mail [email protected], fax (615) 251-5818, or write to the above address. For bulk shipments mailed quarterly to one address, fax (615) 251-5933, e-mail orderentry@ lifeway.com, or write to the above address. Annual individual subscription, $25.00. Bulk shipments mailed quarterly to one address when ordered with other literature, $5.95 each per quarter, plus shipping. Please allow six to eight weeks for arrival of first issue. Biblical Illustrator is designed to support the Sunday School lessons in the student and adult Bible Studies for Life curriculum, The Gospel Project curriculum, and the Explore the Bible series. Bible background articles and accompanying illustrative material are based on the passages studied in these curriculum series. We believe that the Bible has God for its author; salvation for its end; and truth, without any mixture of error, for its matter and that all Scripture is totally true and trustworthy. To review LifeWay’s doctrinal guideline, please visit www.lifeway.com/doctrinalguideline. Scripture quotations marked (HCSB) are from the Holman Christian Standard Bible®, Copyright © 1999, 2000, 2002, 2003, 2009 by Holman Bible Publishers. Used by permission. Holman Christian Standard Bible®, Holman CSB®, and HCSB® are federally registered trademarks of Holman Bible Publishers. Scripture quotations marked (ESV) are from English Standard Version® (The Holy Bible, English Standard Version®), copyright © 2001 by Crossway, a publishing ministry of Good News Publishers. Used by permission. All rights reserved. Scripture quotations marked (NASB) are from the New American Standard Bible®, Copyright © 1960, 1962, 1963, 1968, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1977, 1995 by The Lockman Foundation. Used by permission. (www.lockman.org) Scripture quotations marked (NIV) are taken from the Holy Bible, New International Version®, NIV®. Copyright © 1973, 1978, 1984, 2011 by Biblica, Inc® Used by permission of Zondervan. All rights reserved worldwide. www.zondervan.com The “NIV” and “New International Version” are trademarks registered in the United States Patent and Trademark Office by Biblica, Inc.(R). Scripture quotations marked (NKJV) are from the New King James Version. Copyright © 1979, 1980, 1982, Thomas Nelson, Inc., Publishers. Scripture quotations marked (NET) are from the NET Bible® copyright ©1996-2006 by Biblical Studies Press, L.L.C. http://netbible.com All rights reserved. Scripture quotations marked (NLT) are from the Holy Bible, New Living Translation, copyright © 1996. Used by permission of Tyndale House Publishers, Inc., Wheaton, IL 60189 USA. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America
B I B L I C A L
volume 41 number 2
winter 2014-15
B I B L I C A L I L L U S T R AT O R X E R X E S I I U N D E R H I S W I N G S I A R M O R A S I M AG E RY
AM PLEASED to highlight the work of one of our esteemed archaeologists, Dr. Steven Ortiz, who is professor of Old Testament and archaeology at Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary. Since 2006 he has led a team of archaeologists and volunteers in a dig at Gezer, Israel. Illustrator: Dr. Ortiz, will you be leading a dig at Gezer in 2015? Ortiz: Yes, we plan to be there. Illustrator: What is significant about Gezer? Ortiz: Gezer is well known from ancient Egyptian and Assyrian texts. It was one of three cities that Solomon fortified (1 Kings 9:15). The king of Gezer organized a coalition against the Israelites. The Canaanites always held the city until Egypt conquered and gave it as a dowry to Solomon’s wife. It guarded the pass from the coastal highway up to the Judean hill country. So it was significant in the Old Testament Era. Illustrator: What have you found in your excavations? Ortiz: Gezer has a long history of excavations, therefore we were not expecting to contribute much to what has already been discovered. Yet our excavations have uncovered a major Iron Age I city wall. In 1 Samuel 20, we have David chasing the Philistines “as far as Gezer.” Now with this massive city wall, we know why David stopped. During that period Gezer was a major city; the Philistines felt safe once they were there. In addition we have uncovered a major Late Bronze Age (Canaanite city, 14th century b.c.) occupation that was destroyed. We have uncovered one of the largest Israelite four-room houses as well as the city plan of possibly Uzziah. Next summer we hope to uncover the city of Solomonic fame. Illustrator: Are you looking for volunteers for 2015? Ortiz: Yes, of course. We accept students and lay people alike. We have 11 year olds (if they come with a parent) up to people in their 70s. You do not need any experience, only a desire to uncover biblical history and contribute to the discipline of biblical archaeology. If anybody is interested, they can go to our website, www.telgezer.com; they can go to the Southwestern website or email me [email protected]. Illustrator: Dr. Ortiz, thank you for your time and for the work you are doing. Ortiz: Thank you.
XERXES I His Life and Times Under His Wings Armor as Biblical Imagery
1105
WINTER 2014-15
About the Cover: Double bull capital from Persepolis from the reigns of Darius I and Xerxes (522465 B.C.). The roof of the audience hall was supported by 36 columns. The capitals were formed by the forequarters of two bulls joined at the middle. Beams rested between the bulls. ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ BRENT BRUCE/ ORIENTAL MUSEUM/ CHICAGO (70/9197)
I
On a scale of 1-10, this book receives a rating of 8 camels.
Warfare in the Old Testament, Boyd Seevers. Kregel Academic, 2013; 320 pages; hardback; ISBN 978-0-8254-3655-0. Book reviews are limited to those the Illustrator staff feels confident to recommend, based on ease of reading, quality of content, and doctrinal viewpoint. Each book is reviewed within the guidelines of The Baptist Faith and Message. The 1 to 10 scale reflects overall quality and usefulness.
YES!
N HIS BOOK, Warfare in the Old Testament: The Organization, Weapons, and Tactics of Ancient Near Eastern Armies, Boyd Seevers intends to illuminate the cultural context of warfare within the Old Testament. He shows how context can help us better understand the biblical message, specifically related to warfare. Using archaeological evidence and ancient texts, Seevers adeptly presents the historical and military backgrounds of Israel, Egypt, Philistia, Assyria, Babylon, and Persia. He writes to fill in contextual gaps the ancient audience would have understood but modern readers miss. Seevers offers abundant background material—enough to be especially helpful for those interested in biblical context and content. However, while his explanations of context are most often spot on . . . some are speculative. He offers fictionalized historical accounts about possibilities and likelihoods at the beginning of each major section. While nice, these are, at times, reaching. The concern is that some readers may view this material as being factual. Adding to the reconstructions some endnotes with source material would have been helpful. The more serious issue arises when
Seevers’ statements fail to align with Scripture. For example Seevers states both in his fictionalized reconstruction and in his non-fiction text that only the Israelite soldiers crossed the Jordan to Gilgal, while the non-combatant Israelites stayed across the Jordan (p. 25, 69). Joshua states, however, “all Israel crossed over” (3:17, nkjv); and while Reuben’s, Gad’s, and Manasseh’s warriors crossed over, their families remained (1:12‑18; 4:12). This type of error is disappointing. Further, not all conservative Bible readers will agree with Seevers’ low numbers for the exodus (he interprets the Hebrew term eleph as military unit rather than thousand), but he makes a good presentation of the issue. Color makes the book easier to read; unfortunately Seevers includes only five color illustrations; more would improve. Though color, the maps lack the quality and detail of maps in the back of most Bibles. For background information about ancient warfare, this is an excellent resource; for accuracy, though, read with a Bible in hand. I Eric A. Mitchell is assistant professor of biblical backgrounds and archaeology at Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary, Fort Worth, Texas.
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Contents
WINTER 2014-2015 VOLUME 41 NUMBER 2
DEPARTMENTS 2
BI Lines
71 Under His Wings by Tom Goodman January 11 // Session 6
3
BI the Book: Warfare in the Old Testament By Boyd Seevers Book review by Eric A. Mitchell
53 To Be a Stranger by Byron Longino January 18 // Session 1
InSites (between pages 66-67) Rule of the Achaemenid Kings Rulers, Religion, and Ancient Coins
82 Paul and the Corinthian Church by Cecil R. Taylor February 1 // Session 3
98 Issues Gone BI
31 Morality in First-Century Rome by Bennie R. Crockett, Jr. February 15 // Session 5
BIBLE STUDIES FOR LIFE 10
Valleys and Pastures: A Geographical Overview of Ancient Israel by R. Dennis Cole December 7 // Session 1
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Our Forgiving God: Unique Among Ancient Religions? by Blakeley Winslow December 21 // Session 3
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Waterfalls and Wadis: Water Imagery in the Psalms by R. Kelvin Moore December 28 // Session 4
19 “Sanctification” in 1 Thessalonians by Shawn L. Buice February 22 // Session 6 EXPLORE THE BIBLE 62 Xerxes I: His Life and Times by Joseph R. Cathey December 7 // Session 1
InSites: Rule of the Achaemenid Kings December 7 // Session 1
6
Reversals in the Book of Esther by D. Larry Gregg, Sr. December 14 // Session 2
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S E E R E L AT E D B I B L E S T U D Y R E S O U R C E S :
www.GospelProject.com • www.BibleStudiesForLife.com • www.lifeway.com/ExploreTheBible
94 Ancient Lebanon by John Traylor December 28 // Session 4
InSites: Rulers, Religion, and Ancient Coins December 21 // Session 3
67 Trade and Wealth in the Ancient World by Robert D. Bergen December 21 // Session 3
86 Returning to Judah by T. J. Betts January 4 // Session 5
27 Sheol: An Old Testament Understanding by J. Mark Terry December 28 // Session 4
22 Nehemiah’s Wall in Jerusalem by Joel F. Drinkard, Jr. January 11 // Session 6
78 The Poor: An Old Testament Perspective by J. Alan Branch January 4 // Session 5
35 Sanballat & Tobiah by George H. Shaddix January 25 // Session 8
19 “Sanctification” in 1 Thessalonians by Shawn L. Buice January 11, February 8 // Session 6
75 Gates and Gatekeepers by Scott Hummel February 1 // Session 9 38 Temple Personnel in Nehemiah’s Day by E. LeBron Matthews February 22 // Session 12
56 Not Ashamed: Why It Mattered by G. Al Wright, Jr. February 1 // Session 3 42 Agrippa II by Warren McWilliams February 8 // Session 3
THE GOSPEL PROJECT 58 Herod’s Temple by Timothy Trammell December 7 // Session 1
49 Savior: A Word Study by Mark R. Dunn February 15 // Session 4
90 Armor as Biblical Imagery by Argile A. Smith, Jr. December 14 // Session 2
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By D. Larry Gregg, Sr.
DICE: ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ BRITISH MUSEUM/ LONDON (31/28/29-30)
ETB: Book of Esther
FIGURINE: ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ DAVID ROGERS/ MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS/ BOSTON (316/1)
. . . we should be careful about the literal and figurative gallows we erect for our enemies; we may inadvertently hang ourselves upon them.
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ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ MURRAY SEVERANCE (74-1-18)
S
OME SUGGEST THAT, BECAUSE OF THE commonalities of human nature, people actually share a limited number of primary human interaction stories; all others are more or less complex variations of a finite number of universal themes. Like the primary colors of the visual palette from which a multitude of shades and hues come, humanity’s basic physiological and psychosocial drives provide the substratum underlying all our stories—from the most epic and enduring to the most petty and transitory. If this hypothesis has any validity, it may go far to explain the enduring quality of the Book of Esther and its inclusion in the Old Testament canon despite a lack of
Upper left: Dice made of bone and agate. Left: Figurine of two girls playing knuckle bones. The bones, each of whose six faces
were different, could be used as dice. The Feast of Purim comes from the word “pur,” which translates “lot.” Haman cast lots to ascertain a favorable day for
carrying out his scheme (Esth. 3:7). Above: Glazed tile wall decoration with a mythical winged creature; from the palace at Susa.
certain characteristics ordinarily found in other biblical literature.1 Although the book does not mention God, most readers will readily recognized that He was at work, behind the scenes, delivering His people from a threat of certain death. Thus while Esther may be lacking in overt theology and spiritually, it does have more than ample quantities of corruption and integrity, greed and self-sacrifice, betrayal and faithfulness, wisdom and cunning, duplicity and nobility, drama, prejudice, pandering, and intrigue. Some believe the original writer’s intent may simply have been to provide a justification for the Jewish observance of the Festival of Purim.2 This writer would argue that Esther’s ultimate inclusion in the biblical canon was based more upon what the narrative discloses about human nature than upon concerns about the nature of God. Esther is not a conduit of revelation concerning the qualities and character of God; it is a mirror reflecting back upon the reader the core qualities and character of human beings, both positive and negative. Writers of dramatic literature understand that a good plot grasps the reader’s attention and generates a desire to know more. However, certain literary devices move the plot along WINTER 2014-15 / BIBLICAL ILLUSTRATOR
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interpreted her refusal as both defiance of the king’s command and as an attempt to undermine husbands’ authority over their wives. The king’s best advisors recommended that he make an example of Vashti, the royal consort, in order to discourage similar behavior on the part of other wives toward their spouses. In contrast, we read of the rather compliant nature of Hadassah (Esther), the orphaned Jewess, who is routinely obedient to her uncle, Mordecai, the king’s eunuch Hegai, and King Ahasuerus (Xerxes I) himself, resulting in both her elevation to be queen and, ultimately, to becoming the providential instrument for her people’s salvation. The lesson seems clear: open defiance can lead to downfall while humble obedience and willingness to adapt to changing circumstances can eventually lead to triumph. Right: Celebrating Purim, street performer participating in a pedestrian parade in part of Old Jerusalem. Below: Bronze dagger from the area of ancient Susa; dated to the 3rd millennium B.C.
ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ MICAH KANDROS (3593/84)
toward the ultimate climax of the story. For the writer of Esther, the literary device of reversal serves as the primary vehicle for moving the story line relentlessly toward its dramatic denouement.3 One finds an almost antithetical structure in which the characters trade roles of pride, prominence, power, and prestige for those of humility, marginalization, weakness, and dishonor. Because of the multiple changes of fortune in Esther, some blatant and others more subtle, the writer comes near to overusing the motif of reversal. Among the most obvious reversals are the following: (1) Queen Vashti in contrast with Esther, (2) the assassins in contrast with Mordecai, (3) the Agagites in contrast with the Benjaminites, (4) Haman in contrast with Mordecai, and (5) the destruction of the Jews’ enemies in contrast with the Jews’ vindication and victory. While this list does not exhaust the instances of reversal in Esther, reflecting upon them may reveal something of the concerns of the book’s writer. Believers can benefit from examining the writer’s concerns through the lens of God’s ultimate revelation of Himself in the person and work of Jesus Christ—prior to arriving at any applications they may have for contemporary Christian living. Finding an explicit reason for Vashti’s refusal to appear, at the king’s command, at the celebratory banquet is difficult (see Esth. 1:12). Whatever Vashti’s reasons, observers
Bottom: Model of the palace at Susa.
COURTESY OF SOUTHERN ADVENTIST UNIVERSITY/ CHATTANOOGA, TN
ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ BRITISH MUSEUM/ LONDON (31/12/16)
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BOWL: ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ BOB SCHATZ/ ROYAL ONTARIO MUSEUM/ TORONTO (29/15/12)
Right: Drinking bowl found at Susa, which is the biblical city of Shushan, or at Persepolis. Dated 559–330 B.C.
Far right: Plaque of a Parthian banqueter holding a drinking cup and reclining on a couch.
In the narrative of the intrigue of the king’s eunuchs to assassinate him, we are presented with an instance of what happens when people overreach themselves (2:21‑23). We are not told the source of these men’s anger; rather, the point seems to be to illustrate the consequences of faithfulness versus unfaithfulness. While the conspirators and Mordecai held similar places of authority and trust in the king’s household, Mordecai used his position to protect rather than destroy the king. The fact that Mordecai’s role in foiling the assassins remained in the background for an extended period serves to prove that his motivation was loyalty and faithfulness rather than anger and ambition. To understand the ethnic tension between Agagites and Benjaminites, illustrated in Haman’s hatred for Mordecai, one must look to 1 Samuel 15. There we find the story of how God, through the prophet Samuel, instructed Saul to exterminate the Amalekites and all they possessed (1 Sam. 15:3). After achieving victory over King Agag and the Amalekites, Saul, in disobedience to God’s instructions, spared the life of the defeated king and used the booty of the conquest to reward himself and his soldiers. The consequence of this disobedience was Saul being rejected as Israel’s king and continued ethnic strife between Israelites and Amalekites in the following generations (1 Sam. 30). The Hebrew term for wiping out a people is herem. The word can refer to “exterminating inhabitants, and destroying or appropriating their possessions.”4 This is not the place to explore the social, moral, or theological implications of the concept of herem5 commonly practiced among ancient peoples. However, the continuing enmities among contemporary ethnicities reaching back across hundreds and thousands of years illustrate the irrational and tragic willingness of some ethnic groups to seek the extermination of others. In our quickness to condemn those of the past for their atrocities, let us not be blind to the willingness of many to justify similar atrocities in the present. Esther reminds us that those originally marked for extermination may later became the exterminators. And we must keep in mind that these socially and culturally inherited prejudices inform how we relate to particular individuals in our own lives. A little Haman and a little Mordecai likely resides in all of us, and we should be careful about the literal and figurative gallows we erect for our enemies; we may inadvertently hang ourselves upon them.
ILLUSTRATOR PHOTO/ BRITISH MUSEUM/ LONDON (31/13/52)
Do the reversals in Esther and their lessons for human interaction suggest anything about ultimate realities? I am inclined to think they do. Among them I suggest: (1) We all stand close to our immediate circumstances and concerns; only as we develop the capacity to distance ourselves somewhat can we perceive the workings of Divine Providence in our own actions and in the actions of others. (2) Fatalistic acceptance of circumstances is not necessarily synonymous with being in God’s will. Both Mordecai and Esther risked themselves in order to alter positively their own futures and those of others. In doing so, they were the instruments of Divine purpose whether they realized it or not. (3) The value of one’s personhood must be measured on the basis of what he does with what he has rather than in comparison with what someone does with what she or he has. The narrative in Esther demonstrates that the various courses of these persons’ lives, to a significant degree, were determined by their individual stewardship of the gifts they possessed and the positions they occupied. (4) Finally, Esther’s inclusion in the biblical canon, despite its various limitations, reminds us that the final determinate of our value does not lie within ourselves; it is found in the unmerited grace of the One who caused us to be and who sustains our being. I 1. Balmer H. Kelly, “The Book of Esther” in The Layman’s Bible Commentary, vol. 8 (Richmond: John Knox, 1962), 41. 2. Reidar B. Bjornard, “Esther,” in The Broadman Bible Commentary, vol. 4, EstherPsalms (Nashville: Broadman, 1971), 2. 3. Frederic W. Bush, Esther, vol. 9 in Word Biblical Commentary (Dallas: Word Books, 1996), 323. 4. This herem–which refers to the wiping out of a people–should not be confused with a harem, which refers to the concubines or wives of a man in a polygamous culture. See mr;x' (charam, haram; to ban or exterminate) in Francis Brown, S. R. Driver, and Charles A. Briggs, The Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 1996), 355. 5. See Johnny L. Wilson, “Holy War” in Mercer Dictionary of the Bible, gen. ed. Watson E. Mills (Macon, GA: Mercer Univ. Press, 1990), 385-86.
D. Larry Gregg, Sr., president of Covecraft Consultants, lives in Rutherfordton, North Carolina. WINTER 2014-15 / BIBLICAL ILLUSTRATOR
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