c. 1200 BC

FINAL EXAM REVIEW FOR METHOD AND THEORY OF CLASSICS Greece  Major Chronological Periods Bronze Age: c. 3000 – c. 1200 B.C. Iron (or Dark) Age: c. 1200 – c. 800 B.C. Archaic Period: c. 800 – c. 480 B.C. Classical Period: c. 480 – c. 323 B.C. Hellenistic Period: c. 323 onwards Minoans on Crete: c. 2000 B.C. Hellenistic Period begins with the death of Alexander the Great. Rome  Major Chronological Periods Iron Age: c. 900 – c. 750 B.C.E. „Regnal‟ Period: c. 750 –c. 500 B.C.E. Roman Republic: c. 500 – c. 31 B.C.E. The Principate: c. 31 B.C.E. – late 3RD c. C.E. Late Antiquity: roughly the 4TH – 7TH c. C.E. Rome expulses their Kings and forms the Republic. Classical Archaeology 1   

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Classical archaeology definition more problematic (historical reasons) Sub-discipline of classics + archaeology (complicated relationship) Greek versus Roman Archaeology  Both geographical  (Greek- Aegean + East Mediterranean)  (Rome- Italy + Western Europe)  Both chronological  (Greek about 100 BC, Roman 200 BC to 500 AD) Classical deals with material culture of civilizations that are familiar through elite literary culture Many cultures not literate, not produce texts that survive in great numbers (as in Mycenaeans) Other literate cultures are not well + known through literary output rather than prosaic documentary records (as in Medieval England) Literary Texts may be viewed as:  Negative: finding suitable illustrations in text  Positive: All types of material survives as a unique opportunity for studying use of material culture in early literate societies

Doing Greek Archaeology

Johann Joachim Winkelmann (1717-1768)  Influential figure spreading interest in ancient Greece in mid 18th century  Never did any fieldwork  Appointed Papal Antiquary (1763)  Access to virtually all sculpture excavated in Italy + exported from Greece  Largely driven by reading ancient literary texts  Visited excavation at Herculaneum (started in 1738) and Pompeii (1748)  Highly critical of both sites Greek Independence  Waning power of Ottoman empire makes Greece directly accessible  Lord Elgin’s acquisition of sculpture from Parthenon (1801-1811)  Greek War of Independence (1821-1830)  New nation state  Leaders (Bavarian Monarchy) parade monuments as symbols of their identity Archaeology in Greece  Presence of foreign national school of archaeology founded in Greek Independence  Biggest + Most important were those founded in 19th century  The French School (EfA) in 1846  The German School (DAI) in 1874  The American School of Classical Studies at Athens (ASCSA) in 1881  British School at Athens (BSA) in 1886  17 Foreign schools with official recognition  Georgian School in 1997 + Canadian Institute in Greece (CIG/ICG) in 1976  Tight controls on archaeological fieldwork in Greece  Foreign schools must apply to the Ministry of Culture for 3 permits for excavation/ survey projects yearly  In addition, apply for 3 permits for collaborative projects with Greek Archaeological Service  Fieldwork with sponsorship of foreign schools can be carried out by foreigners  Majority of archaeological fieldwork is carried out by Greek Archaeological Service (branch of Ministry of Culture)  Regional departments called Ephorates  Specialized central departments called The Ephorate of Underwater Antiquities  National Archaeological Museum  39 Ephorates of Prehistoric + Classical Antiquities  28 of Byzantine Antiquities  Privately sponsored archaeology in Archaeological Society of Athens (1837)  Long term research excavations (Athenian Agora- American School 1931) Heinrich Schliemann (1822-1890)  Excavates at Troy (1870) + Shaft Graves at Mycenae + Bronze Age Citadel at Tiryns

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Enthusiastic + Wealthy amateur going against dominant scholarly views at the time His methods attracted a great deal of criticism  Excavations were destructive Work carried out with a clear, problem oriented, research agenda Focused on stratigraphic sequence at Troy Brought Greek Bronze Age clearly to light

Arthur Evans (1851-1941)  Was a respectable academic and had less criticism  Excavating in Crete (independent in 1898)  1900  Uncovering palace at Knossos  revealed civilization that predated anything known from classical literary texts John Beazley (1885-1970)  Working on Athenian painted pottery  Production of catalogues of black and red figure painted ases  Attributed them to specific artists + schools  Arrangement of vases into a chronological framework Doing Roman Archaeology  Interest in material remains hand in hand with increasing interest in classical literary texts in Europe (14th c. onwards) Cyriac of Ancona  15TH Century  Descriptions of monuments + antiquities in Rome  Travelled extensively in eastern Mediterranean + recorded (drew) his findings  Strength of his interest in Greek antiquities as well as Roman  Illustrated the Parthenon of Athens Pompeii and Herculaneum  Important in the history of archaeology  Excavated under patronage of Charles of Bourbon, King of Naples in 1738 +1748  1st catalogue of finds was published in 1755  1762  Winkelmann published a Letter on Herculaneum finds  1860 Giuseppe Fiorelli began proper, systematic + recorded excavations

Foreign Archaeological Schools in Rome  French Academy (17th century)  British School at Rome  American Academy in Rome  The Finnish Institute in Rome  Less central to Italian archaeology than Greek counterparts

New Archaeology of 1960‟s + 1970‟s  Associated with a group of US archaeologists (Lewis Binford)  Dissatisfied with existing state of discipline  Existing approaches failed to explain change in past changes  Existing narratives tended to posit migrations of people + vague influences  Greater focus on understanding processes at work in the history of cultures  Identified as “processual archaeology” or “processualism”  Traced to Willey & Phillips Method and Theory in American Archaeology  Self-Conscious turn away from historical to more scientific approaches  Driven by contemporary developments in philosophy of science by introduction of scientific techniques to archaeology  Dating techniques (radiocarbon dating)  late 1940’s + 1950’s Colin Renfrew  Bringing the innovations of north American anthropological archaeologists to the attention of the Mediterranean  1972 book Emergence of Civilization: The Cyclades and the Aegean in 3RD Millenium BC  Concepts of New Archaeology  Explanatory  Cultural Process (Seek valid generalizations about changes in social + economic systems)  Deductive (Formulate hypotheses, Construct Models, Deduce Consequences)  Validation (Hypotheses testable, Conclusions not accepted on social status)  Project Design (Data Accumulation, Answer Research Questions)  Quantitative (Computer-Assisted statistical treatment of material)  Optimistic (Answering questions about social organization)  Reaction to processualism = “post-processualism”+ “interpretive archaeology”  Subjectivity of archaeological interpretation  Archaeology escaped handmaid of history  lickspittle of literary theory Getting The Measure of The Land 1: Founding a New Colony  Establishments of new settlements in classical antiquity  Colony  Latin “colonia” (Romans meant specific settlement)  Greek texts Colony transliterated as “kolonia”  New settlements founded by Greeks was “apoikia(i)” meaning new home  Archaic + Classical Periods  Archaic Period (no distinction between settlements “apoikia” and trading posts “emporia”  Brea Decree, 5th c. Athens  arrangements for settlements in northern Aegean  Provide means for sacrificing to obtain good omens  Choose 10 men, one form each tribe, divide up the land  Contemporary comedy jokes about use of geometry + associated equipment  Plato’s Laws  Division of land in new city of Magnesia

Getting The Measure of The Land 2: Founding a New Colony  Technological developments + innovation come from archaeologists interested in economic matters  Lewis’ Surveying Instruments of Greece and Rome (Cambridge, 2011) Centuriation  System of dividing up land into rectangles with boundaries marked by ditches + dry stone walls  Associated with Roman landscapes  Romans start dividing up countryside into regular rectangles at same time as territories of Greek cities (Metapontum, Southern Italy)  Late 4th century BC  Archaic period illustrated in classical town plans (Olynthus, northern Aegean) Getting The Measure of The Land 3: Modern Surface Survey  Practicalities of laying out regular grids: Two Things  Establishing Right Angles (3, 4, 5 Triangle + Pair of Compasses Used)  Triangle contained by a semi-circle, 2 Overlapping triangles  Lines drawn between centers of circles where arcs overlap  Set square may be laid down  Lines extended using poles + cords  Measuring the diagonals of quadrilaterals formed 

Measuring Horizontal Distances + Lengths  Greek Surveyors used cords, various material/lengths  Standard length 100 cubits = 45 m  Chains used though heavy + expensive  Roman Surveyors used rods of wood  Standard length 10 feet = 3 m long  Longer distances measured with cords, counting of paces  Electronic distance measurement (after WWII) + Satellite Positioning  Tacheometry practical combination with trigonometry (optical instruments)  Continued importance of chains + tapes over short distances

Modern Classical Archaeology  Survey refers to “Systematic Regional Survey”  Technique of archaeological investigation connected with emergence of New Archaeology  Focused on Regions + Based on Surface Reconnaisance  Includes large scale topographic survey, geophysical survey, aerial photography + remote sensing  Fieldwalking survey  Teams walking over designated areas of land  Teams spaced out in lines (10-25 m apart), artifacts counted  Ploughed field are ideal for fieldwalking survey

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Identification of unknown sites + Understanding of landscapes between towns + cities 1st developed by archaeologists working in Mesoamerica/Southwestern US with New Archaeologists 1970-1990 (Intense surface survey conducted in Mediterranean Preexisting tradition of casual extensive survey in classical lands 1960’s  Importance of countryside outside urban centers Literature was of little or no help Vast quantities of data for little cost

Getting The Measure of The Land 3 ½ : Modern Surface Survey  Common finds in surface survey: potsherds, ceramic building material + stone tools (Coins, metal artifacts + glass)  Dating this material is imprecise  Concentration of survey finds are termed “sites”  Function inferred by nature of the finds (Sanctuary versus farm)  Concentration= Change over time  Density of surface material reflect state of pottery supply in the past  Pottery recorded or might be missed Getting The Measure of Things Greek Length  Basic units: daktulos (finger), pous (foot), plethron, stadion  16 fingers= foot, 100 feet= plethron, 600 feet= stadion  Bema (pace)= 2 ½ feet, bema diplooun (double pace)= 5 feet  Orgyia (Fathom, 2 Arms)= 6 feet  Pechys (cubit)= 24 fingers= 1 ½ feet  Olympic Foot= 320 mm  Attic (Athenian Foot)= 296 mm Roman Length  Basic units: foot (pes)= 296 mm = 16 fingers (digiti)= 12 inches (unciae)  Pace (passus)= 5 feet, 125 paces= stadium, 1000 paces= 1 mile (5000 ft)  Actus= 24 paces, 1000 paces= 5000 feet= 1480 cm Greek Area  Plethron= 100 ft by 100 ft  Larger unit Medimnon area sown by wheat grain (2700 m2) Roman Area  Actus quadratus= 120 ft by 120 ft x 2 = iugerum  2 iugera= heredium  100 heredia= 200 iugera= centuria= 50 hectares

Ptolemaic Egypt Area  Aroura= 100 cubits by 100 cubits Greek Capacity  Basic unit: kotyle (240-270 ml)  Attic Standard= 270 ml  Dry measures 4 kotylai= choinix X 8= hekteus X 6= medimnos (50 litres)  Wet measures 12 kotylai= chous X 12= metretes/amphora  Attic Standard (1 amphora= under 40 L) Roman Capacity  Dry Measure: modius= 8.7 L= sextarius (546 ml) 16  Wet measure: 48 sextarii= 1 amphora (26.2 L), Culleus= 20 amphorae Greek Weights  Basic unit: drachma= 6 obolai  100 drachma= 1 mina, 6000 drachma= 1 talent  Attic: drachma= 4.37 g, talent= 26 kg  Aeginetan: drachma= 6.24 g, talent= 37 kg  70 Aeginetan drachmas: 100 Attic Roman Weights  Basic unit: libra (pound)= 327.45 g= 12 unciae  Drachma= 1/8 uncia= 3.14 g  Scripulum= 1/24 uncia= 1.14 g Making Money in Greece and Rome  W.E. Metcalf ed The Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Coinage (2012)  A coin is a piece of metal which conforms to a standard and bears a design (Howgego)  Coins as high value monetary instruments  Weighted bullion (made of silver)  Not everything that looks like a coin is money= medals + tokens  Greek standard: Drachma + obol weights (multiple/fractions)  Athens: Silver Minting= Tetradrachm= 4 drachma= 17.28 g (Week’s pay)  Hemiobal= half obol, Tetartemorion (quarter obol)= 0.16 g  Basic unit: stater= 8-15 g (2, 3, 4 drachmas)  Earliest coinage struck in an electrum (alloy of silver + gold)  Greek coinage= silver, copper for smaller coins  Gold coinage not common until reign of Philip II of Macedon  Coin designs: type, inscription and accessory symbols (mint marking)  Successful coinage= extremely conservative (Athenian tetradrachms)  Coins round but thick, designs hammered not cast

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1st : Acquire the metal, made into blanks (flans)-casting or stamping, struck with dies (iron or bronze), die set into anvil, heated blank placed on top and then forced into die with punch by hammer Roman mints contained high levels of fineness (97-99%) Lower die= obverse, other side= reverse 1ST coinage only have one side on obverse side Punches leave an indent in reverse side called an “incuse” Later coinage placed between 2 dies, upper side struck Upper die held in place by hands then struck Rihil said “A drachma produced required 18 kg of wood

The Roman Denarius System  Early Roman coinages horribly complex  Collapsed under war caused by rule of Hannibal  Silver denarius introduced (silver, gold + bronze)  Pound (libra)= 288 scruples (327.45 g)  X= denarius tenner  Victoriate= 3 scruples (Head of Victory) low silver content  Gold coinage disappears and coinage becomes bimetallic  Coins produced under moneyers  Denarius reduced to 3.5 scruples= 16 asses  Under strain in 1st century BC (need to pay soldiers)  Gold coins introduced by Julius Caesar in 46 BC and are signed by the praetor A. Hirtius  Aureus= 25 denarii (important in Republic + Principate)  Introduces brass coinage into the system  Augustus reforms and coinage becomes pure copper  Role in archaeological dating  Debasements as indications of crisis  Types of coins reveal message that issuing authorities would like to send out Life and Death in Rome  Prosopography: majority of raw material for prosopographical projects is epigraphical  Ancient historians who know about demography got info from Wrigley’s Population + History (1969)  Inscriptions include:  Name of deceased  Status (implicit in name)  Age at death  Name of dedicator  Epithet describing the deceased (dearest, sweetest, well-deserving) Roman Names  Based around family name (nomen)

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Men had first names (praenomen) abbreviated Late Republic- fewer than 20 used (Gaius, Lucius, Marcus) Women rarely had praenomina Third names: cognomina (aristocratic families) 1st c. BC (common) Praenomina taken away in 2nd c. AD Dating inscriptions Filiation and tribe name after praenomina (35 tribes) 3 letters of tribe Recording of ages of death relate to demography Babies underrepresented and adults overrepresented Hopkins and “Model Life Tables” + Princeton Regional Life Tables North (low mortality), East (high mortality), South (high + low mortality) + West Tables (Average mortality)

The Aristotelian Athenaion Politeia  Aristotle of Stagira: Prolific author, works in dialogue form, still available in Rome (late Republic)  Nicomachean Ethics: Predecessors left subject of legislation unexamined  General study of constitution, best of our ability philosophy of human nature  In light of constitutions we have collected what influence preserves + destroys states, what constitution is best  Discussion picked up in Politics  No collection survives in the manuscripts of Aristotle  Ancient lists of Aristotle’s works mention 158 constitutions of cities  Alexandria (2nd c.BC) exerpted by Heraclides then by another scholar  Excerpts do survive in manuscript (1 page of Athenian constitution)  70 city constitutions survive within other writers  1881 Theodor Bergk papyrus fragments in Berlin Museum was text of Athenian Constitution  1891 Frederic Kenyon- British Museum in London found text on 1st c. AD financial accounts identified as Athenian Constitution of Politeia  2/3 of the work detail history of Athenian political system from 330’s  1/3 describes the tasks of public officials  Authorship a dispute, accept work as Aristotle’s original work  Three issues: Style, Relationship to the Politics+ Quality  Style: entirely different genre from rest of Aristotle’s corpus (sparing use of subjugations + conjunctions  Relationship to Politics: Overt contradictions in the accounts of Draco + Solon  Quality: Author of Constitution does not seem very clever, poor at using different sources, Draco regarded as forgery, chronological confusion with Solon and Pisistratus  Aristotle better philosopher than historian, work of one of his students  All works by Aristotle were not directly written by him Egyptian Papyri

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Egypt under Ptolemies+ Romans= Complicated, hierarchal administration Alexandria replaced Memphis (old capital) Important Ceremonial Center New cities not founded Main area of settlement was Nile Valley- Delta and Fayoum Countryside densely settled with villages Country divided up into Greek “nomes” administered by officials called “strategoi”- generals Nomes Villages (komai) headed by village scribes or village officers Toparchia Late 3rd century intermediate level of administration Hellenistic, Ptolemaic Egypt authority rested with the king (relationship with people + Gods of Egypt Stability King’s chief financial officer = dioiketes (supervised contracts + revenues Both literary text and more documentary text on Egyptian Papyrus Survival due to recycling from cartonnage (mummy making cases) Zenon archive from Philadelphia (2000 documents) Not evently distributed in time or space Few documents come from Nile Valley Come from Fayoum villages (Ptolemaic Papyrus) Western Oases generated later papyri during rule of Romans

The Acropolis of Athens and 5TH Century Building Program  The Parthenon: Building 447 complete in 438, entirely of marble  Larger than predecessor + Temple of Zeus at Olympia (30.88 by 69.51m)  Ratio of length to width is 9:4  Represents most successful expression of dominant style of temple architecture in Greek Mainland (Doric)  Athenian temples of late 5th century incorporate elements of Ionic design (Asia Minor + Aegean Islands)  8 Columns (front), 17 columns (sides)  Canonical Doric temples have 6:13  Attention to external appearance of structure  High quality pedimental sculptures (mid 5th c.) 92 metopes  Continuous frieze around cella wall (Panathenaic Procession)  Cult of Athena at center (Statue and temple= harmonious design)  Cella freize and columns contain Ionic elements  Doric refinements skill in mathematics, planning + engineering  The Propylaia: monumental gateway (Doric), same axis of Parthenon  Pnyx Hill: meeting place of Athenian assembly  Hexastyle: 6 columns (Doric façade)  Change in ground level by broken roofline  6 Ionic columns on path to sanctuary  Ionic for building with processional function  The Erechtheion: Complex, desire to house many cults, replace temple of Athena Polias

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Enclosed tomb of Cecrops + Sea of Poseidon (collection of rectangular bones) Ionic Temple of Athena Nike (south west bastion of Acropolis) Lavishly decorated with continuous freize + sculpted exterior parapet Ionic influenced by desire to make structure not look like treasury Doric building in west end (Pre-Persian Sack Acropolis) 420’s

Unifying Elements of Acropolis Programme  Parthenon + Propylaia on same east-west axis (radical change in alignment)  Parthenon Peristyle +East façade of Propylaia (same proportion of height)  Profile of echinus in column capitals is identical  Ionic columns at Temple of Nike Athena exactly ½ of Propylaia  Axial spacing of columns in Erechtheion double that of Athena Nike  Columns have an inward inclination (Doric style)  Height of Athena Nike Columns= Height between Doric + Ionic Columns  Doric= fat and wide, Ionic= skinny and long (10:1)