CH.4 REINFORCEMENT - Reinforcement: the process in ...
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CH.4 REINFORCEMENT Reinforcement: the process in which a behavior is strengthened by the immediate consequence tht reliably follows its occurrence. When a behavior is strengthened it is more likely to occur again the future. Ex: Thorndike’s law of effect with the hungry cat in the cage hittng level with paw to open it to get food Defining Reinforcement When a behavior results in a favourable outcome (one tht contributes to the well being or survival of the animal), tht behavior is more likely to be repeated in the future in similar circumstances It is defined as the occurrence of a particular behavior, is followed by an immediate consequence, and tht results in the strengthening of the behavior (the person is more likely to engage in the behavior again in the future) We can determine tht a behavior is strengthened when there is an increase in its frequency, duration, intensity or speed (decreased latency). Operant behavior: a behavior is strengthened through the process of reinforcement. An operant behavior acts on the environment to produce a consequence and in turn is ctrlld by or occurs again the future as a result of its immediate consequence. The consequence tht strengthens an operant behavior is called a reinforcer. Ex; child crying at night to gain parent’s attention It is correct to say u reinforce a behavior (or a response). You are strengthening a behavior by reinforcing it. It is incorrect to say u reinforce a person. Positive and Negative Reinforcement Both are processes tht strengthen a behavior, both increase probability tht the behavior will occur in the future. They’re only distinguished only by the nature of the consequence tht follows the behavior. Positive Reinforcement: the occurrence of a behavior, addition of a stimulus (a reinforcer) or an increase in the intensity of a stimulus and which results in the strengthening of the behavior Negative Reinforcement: occurrence of a behavior, removal of a stimulus (an aversive stimulus) or a decrease in the intensity of a stimulus and results in strengthening of the behavior Stimulus: an object or event tht can be detected by one of the senses and thus has the potential to influence the person (stimuli is plural). It can be behavior of the person or of others In positive reinforcement, the stimulus that is presented or tht appears after the behavior is called a positive reinforcer ( a pleasant, desirable, or valuable tht a person will try to get). In negative reinforcement, the stimulus tht is removed or avoided after the behavior is called an aversive stimulus- unpleasant, painful or annoying tht a person will try to get away from or avoid. Pos reinforcement, a responses produces a stimulus whereas in negative reinforcement,
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a response removes or prevents the occurrence of a stimulus; in both cases, the behavior is more likely to occur in the future negative reinforcement nd punishment; negative (removal or subtraction) reinforcement (like positive reinforcement) increases or strengthens a behavior. Punishment decreases or weakens a behavior. Reinforcement is alwys defined by the effect it has on the behavior: Functional definition. Ex: child completes school wrk nd teacher congratulates him and pats him on his back. It can be positive if the praise leads the child to complete more school tasks in the future. Hwever teacher’s attention may not be reinforce for every children so u have to try it out and measure its effect on the behavior. Ask urself 3 questions when analyzing a situation and determine whether it illustrates positive or negative reinforcement; 1. What is the behavior; 2. What happened immediately after the behavior (was a stimulus added or removed); 3. What happened to the behavior in the future (was the behavior strengthened? Was it more likely to occur?) Social vs. Automatic Reinforcement When a behavior produces a reinforcing consequence through the actions of another person, the process is Social reinforcement. Ex; social pos reinforcmnt might involve asking ur roommate to bring u bag of chips. Social neg reinforcmnt involve asking ur roommate to turn down the TV when it is too loud. In both cases consequence of behavior was produced through the action of another person. When the behavior produces a reinforcing consequence through direct contact with the physical environment the process is automatic reinforcement. Ex: automatic pos reinforcement would be if u wnt to kitchen nd got chips for urself. Automatic neg reinforcmnt would be getting remote and turn dwn the tv volume by urself. In both cases, the reinforcing consequence was not produced by another person Premack priniciple: a type of positive reinforcement involves the opportunity to engage in a high probability behavior (a preferred behavior) as a consequence of a low probability behavior (a less preferred behavior), to increase the low probability behavior. Ex; doing hwk before going to play Escape and Avoidance Behaviours Escape behaviour: occurrence of the behavior results in the termination of an aversive stimulus tht was already present when the behavior occurred. The person escapes frm the aversive stimulus and tht behavior is strengthened. Avoidance behavior: occurrence of the behavior prevents an aversive stimulus from occurring. The person avoids the aversive stimulus by engaging in a particular behavior and tht behavior is strengthened.
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both escape and avoidance are types of negative reinforcement; therefore both result in increase in the rate of the behavior tht terminated or avoided the aversive stimulus. Conditioned and Unconditioned Reinforces Escape from painful stimulation or extreme levels of stimulation is naturally negatively reinforcing because escape from or avoidance of these stimuli also contributes to survival. These natural reinforcers are called unconditioned reinforcers because they function as reinforcers the first time they are presented to most human beings; no prior experience with these stimuli is needed for them to function as reinforcers. Unconditioned reinforcers are sometimes called primary reinforcers. Conditioned reinforcers: also called secondary reinforce. It is a stimulus tht was once neutral (it cnt influence the behavior tht it follows) but became established as a reinforcer by being paird with an unconditioned reinforcer an already established conditioned reinforcer. Ex; money to obtain other reinforcers Token: It can be used as a conditioned reinforcer to modify human behavior. It is presented to the person aftr a desirable behavior and later the person exchanges the token for other reinforcers (backup reinforcers) because the tokens are paired with the backup reinforcers and become reinforcers for the desirable behavior Generalized conditioned reinforcer: when a conditioned reinforce is paired with a wide variety of other reinforcers. Ex; money, praise, or tokens in token economy Factors That Influence the Effectiveness of Reinforcement Immediacy Time btwn occurrence of a behavior and reinforcing consequence is important. For the consequence to be most effective as a reinforcer it should occur immediately after the response occurs. The longer the delay btwn esponse and consequence, the weaker the connection btwn the two. If its too long then there will be no contiguity and consequence wont have effect on the behavior. Response: one instance of a behavior Contingency If a response is consistently followed by an immediate consequence, tht consequence is more likely to reinforce the response. When the response produces the consequence and the consequence does not occur unless the response occurs first, we say that a contingency exists between the response and the consequence. When contingency exists, the consequence is more likely to reinforce the response. Ex; u turn key and car starts Motivating Operations
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Events that can mke a particular consequence more or less reinforcing at some time than at other times. These antecedent events called motivating operations (MOs) alter the value of a reinforcer. there are 2 types of MOs; establishing operations and abolishing operations. Establishing operation: makes reinforce more potent (it establishes the effectiveness of a reinforcer) Abolishing operation: makes a reinforce less potent (it abolishes or decreases the effectiveness of a reinforcer) Motivating operations have 2 effects: a) they alter the value of a reinforcer and b) they make the behavior tht produces tht reinforce more or less likely to occur at tht time. An EO mkes a reinforce more potent nd mkes a behavior tht produces the reinforce more likely and AO mkes a reinforce less potent and makes a behavior tht produces tht reinforce less likely. Deprivation: a type of establishing operation tht increases the effectiveness of most unconditioned reinforcers and some conditioned reinforcers. Satiation: a type of abolishing operation. It occurs when a person has recently consumed a large amnt of a particular reinforce or had substantial exposure to a reinforcing stimulus. Although substantial exposure to, or consumption of a reinforce decreases the effectiveness of a reinforcer, the effects of satiation diminish over time. When an event increases the aversiveness of a stimulus, escape from or removal of the stimulus becomes more reinforcing(EO). When an event decreases the aversiveness of a stimulus, escape from or removal of the stimulus becomes less reinforcing (AO).
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Individual Differences The likelihood of a consequence being a reinforce varies from person to person, so it is important to determine tht a particular consequence is a reinforcer for a particular person
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Magnitude Amnt of reinforce. The effectiveness of a stimulus as a reinforcer is greater if the amnt or magnitude of a stimulus is greater.
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Schedules of Reinforcement Schedule of reinforcement: for a particular behavior specifies whether every response is followed by a reinforcer or whether only some responses are followed by a reinforcer. A continuous reinforcement schedule: each occurrence of a response is reinforced. Intermittent reinforcement schedule: each occurrence of the response is not reinforced. Rather, responses are occasionally or intermittently reinforced. Acquisition: the person is acquiring a new behavior. When enforcing CRF. Maintenance: the behavior is maintained over time with the use of intermittent reinforcement. When using IRS.
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Ferster and Skinner studied IRS. In their experiments, pigeons in experimental chambers pecked round disks mounted on the wall of the chamber in front of them. 4 basic types of schedules: fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, and variable interval. Fixed ratio schedule: it based on the numbr of responses tht occur. In this schedule, a specific or fixed numbr of responses must occur before the reinforcer is delivered. Variable ratio schedule: the number of responses needed for reinforcement varies each time arnd an avg number. Ex; slot machine in casinos or sales person (the frequency matters) Fixed Interval Schedule: the interval of time is fixed, or stays the sme each time. Ex: in a fixed interval 20 second schedule of reinforcement, the first response tht occurs after 20 secs has elapsed results in the reinforcer. Responses tht occur before the 20 secs aren’t reinforced. Only one response is needed but must occur after the interval. A greater rate of responding near the end of the interval is characteristic of FI schedules of reinforcement. Variable Interval Schedule: as in an FI schedule, the reinforcer is delivered for the first response tht occurs after an interval of time has elapsed. The difference is tht in a VI schedule, each time interval is a different length. The interval varies arnd a avg time. Reinforcing Different Dimensions of Behavior Reinforcement may also influence other dimensions of a behavior such as duration, intensity, or latency. If a reinforce is contingent on a particular duration of a behavior, tht duration of the behavior is more likely to occur. Ex; completing hwk (hwever long it tkes) then playing outside for a child. Likewise in intensity and latency. Concurrent Schedules of Reinforcement Concurrent schedules of reinforcement: all of the schedules of reinforcement tht are in effect for a person’s behaviors at one time. Concurrent operants: number of diff behaviors or response options are concurrently available for the person. Response effort: the amnt of force, exertion, or time involved in executing a response. With an increase in response effort for one behavior, the probability of tht behavior decreases relative to the probability of a functionality equivalent alternative behavior. When using reinforcement to increase desirable behavior u must also consider the the schedule of reinforcement for the undesirable behavior. CH.5 Extinction It is a process tht weakens operant behavior. Defining Extinction
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A behavior tht had been reinforced for a period of time was no longer reinforced and behavior stopped occurring Extinction occurs when a behavior tht has been previously reinforced, no longer results in the reinforcing consequences, and therefore, the behavior stops occurring in the future. Skinner and then joined by Ferster demonstrated the principle of extinction with lab animals. When the pigeon in the exprmntl chamber no longer recvd food as a reinforce for pecking the key, the pigeon’s key-pecking behavior stopped. When the lab rat no longer rcvd food pellets for pressing the lever, the lever-pressing behavior decreased and eventually stopped U don’t extinct a person but rather extinguish a behavior. U could put a behavior on extinction not a person. Extinction Burst In the extinction process is tht once behavior is no longer reinforced, it increases briefly in frequency, duration or intensity before it decreases and ultimately stops is called extinction burst. Ex: a remote ctrl tht isn’t working In an extinction burst, another characteristic is novel behaviors which are behaviors tht don’t typically occur in a particular situation which may occur for a brief period when a behavior is no longer reinforced. Ex; child crying at night. After parents stop going to her room (extinction), she cried for longer time and stopped (extinction burst) but she also screamed and hit her pillow (novel behaviors). Novel behaviors during emotional bursts may include emotional responses as well. Extinction burst is a natural characteristic of an extinction situation, it’s not a conscious process Spontaneous Recovery It is when a behavior may occur again even after it has not occurred for some time. It is the natural tendency for the behavior to occur again in situations tht are similar to those in which it occurred and was reinforced before extinction If extinction is still place when spontaneous recovery occurs (if no reinforcement), the behavior will not continue for long. Ex: opening the back door to his apt, if it opens one day, his behavior of using tht door will be reinforced and he will more likely to try to use tht door again. Finding door open occasionally would be an example of intermittent reinforcement which would increase behavioural persistence or resistance to extinction in the future. Procedural Variations of Extinction If a behavior is positively reinforced, a consequence is applied or added after the behavior. Therefore, extinction of a positively reinforced behavior involves withholding the consequence tht was previously delivered after the behavior. (when the behavior no longer results in the delivery of the reinforcing consequence, the behavior no longer occurs)
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If behavior is negatively reinforced behavior results in the removal or avoidance of an aversive stimulus. Extinction of a negatively reinforced behavior therefore involves eliminating the escape or avoidance tht was reinforcing the behavior. When behavior no longer results in escape frm or avoidance of an aversive stimulus, behavior eventually stops. Ex; suppose tht u wear earplugs in negatively reinforced by escaping frm the loud noise, if they weren’t functional u would stop wearing them. Another example; lying to parents when missing ur curfew because they’re asleep to avoid aversive consequence of being grounded but but if her parent was awake in bed and knew if she cme home late or not then she would quit lying when she got home late. An appropriate reinforce must be identified to be eliminated, or else the process does not function as extinction Misconception abt Extinction Ignoring is not extinction but rather removal of the reinforcer for a behavior. Only ignoring the prblm functions as extinction only if attention is the reinforcer.
Factors that influence extinction - 2 imp factors the influence extinction: the reinforcement schedule before extinction and the occurrence of reinforcement after extinction. The reinforcement schedule partly determines whether extinction results in a rapid decrease in the behavior or a more gradual decrease. - When behavior is continuously reinforced, it decreases rapidly once the reinforcement is terminated. In contrast, when a behavior is intermittently reinforced, it often decreases more gradually once the reinforcement is terminated. Ex: vending machine (continuous reinforcement), if you don’t get money back you’ll stop trying immediately again VS. slot machine (intermittent reinforcement- no reinforcement) so more likely ur going to try again before giving up. - Resistance to extinction: intermittent reinforcement before extinction produces it; the behavior persists once extinction is implemented. Continuous reinforcement before extinction (less behavioural persistent). Because of resistance to extinction, the reinforcement schedule before extinction has implications for the successful use of extinction in a behavior mod prgrm Another factor that influences extinction is the occurrence of reinforcement after extinction. If reinforcement occurs in the course of extinction, it tkes longer for the behavior to decrease because reinforcement of the behavior, once extinction has been started, amnts to intermittent reinforcement which mkes the behavior more resistant to extinction. If behavior occurs during spontaneous recovery, the behavior may increase to its level before extinction. CH.6: PUNISHMENT
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Negative and positive reinforcement are processes tht strengthen operant behavior and extinction is a process tht weaken the operant behavior, also punishment Defining Punishment When a person engaged in a behavior and there was an immediate consequence tht made it less likely tht the person would repeat the behavior in similar situations in the future. Punisher: also called aversive stimulus, is a consequence tht mkes a particular behavior less likely to occur in the future. It is defined by the effect of the behavior it follows. A stimulus or event is a punisher when it decreases the frequency of the behavior it follows. you can’t define punishment by whether the consequence appears unfavourable, unpleasant, or aversive. You can conclude tht a particular consequence is punishing only if the behavior decreases in the future. A misconception about punishment In behav. Mod is the process in which consequence of a behavior results in a future decrease in the occurrence of the behavior. in some context, punishment not only involves the hope tht the behavior will cease but also elements of retribution or retaliation, part of the intent is to hurt the person who has committed the crime. Positive and Negative Punishment Difference btwn the two is determined by the consequence of the behavior. Positive punishment: occurrence of a behavior, followed by the presentation of an aversive stimulus and the behavior is less likely to occur in the future. Ex: girl slapping herself in the face and behavior decreased as a result of electric shocks. Another form of positive punishment is based on the Premack principle which states tht when a person is mde to engage in a low probability behavior contingent on a high probability behavior, the high probability behavior will decrease in frequency. That is, after engaging in a problem behavior, a person has to do something they don’t want to do, the person will be less likely to engage in the prblm behavior in the future Negative punishment: occurrence of a behavior, followed by removal of a reinforcing stimulus, and behavior is less likely to occur in the future. They’re parallel to the definitions of positive and negative reinforcement. Reinforcement strengthens a behavior or mkes it more likely to occur in the future whereas punishment weakens a behavior or mkes it less likely to occur in the future. Decrease in behavior after punishment occurs immediately, whereas in extinction it tkes longer for the behavior to decrease and an extinction burst often occurs where the behavior increases briefly before it decreases.
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2 examples of negative punishment are time-out positive reinforcement and response cost( a negative punishment procedure in which, contingent on a behavior, a specified amount of a reinforce is removed). Both involve the loss of a reinforcing stimulus or activity after the occurrence of a problem behavior. Extinction and negative punishment weaken behavior; extinction involves withholding the reinforce tht was maintaining the behavior and negative punishment involves removing or withdrawing a positive reinforce after the behavior; the reinforcer tht is removed in neg punishment is one the individual had already acquired and is not necessarily the sme reinforce tht was maintaining the behavior. Ex: child interrupting parents and behavior is reinforced by his parents’ attention (they scold him each time he interrupts); extinction is withholding the parents’ attention each time he interrupts and neg punishment would be other reinforce like losing allowance money or opportunity to watch TV. Both decrease in the behavior of interrupting. Other names for positive punishment: punishment by application, punishment by contingent presentation of a stimulus, punishment by presentation of an aversive stimulus and response contingent presentation of a punisher Other names for negative punishment: punishment by withdrawal, punishment by loss of reinforcers, the penalty contingency and response-contingent removal of a positive reinforce. Unconditioned and Conditioned Punishers Unconditioned punisher: a stimulus or event tht is naturally punishing because avoiding or minimizing contact with such a stimulus has survival value. No prior conditioning is needed for an unconditioned punisher to function as a punisher. Examples are painful stimuli or extreme levels of stimulation. Ex; touch hot objects- pain, extreme level of auditory, visual stimulation, etc. Conditioned punisher: a previously neutral stimulus tht has been paired a number of times with an established reinforcer and consequently functions as a reinforcer itself. Any stimulus or event may become a conditioned punisher if it is paired with an established punisher The word “NO” is considered a generalized conditioned punisher because it has been paired with a variety of other unconditioned and conditioned punishers over the course of person’s life. Ex: child reaching for electrical outlet and parent says NO, child less likely to reach for it in the future Threats may become conditioned punishers. Stimuli associated with the loss of reinforcers may become conditioned punishers. A parking/speeding ticket is assoctd with the loss of money, so the ticket is the conditioned punisher for many ppl but other factors such as magnitude and schedule of punishment may influence effectiveness of the punishment.
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Warning from parents if it was paired with loss of reinforcers such as allowance money, privileges, or preferred activities; or even facial expressions. A conditioned punisher is defined functionally and only if it weakens the behavior tht it follows Contrasting Reinforcement and Punishment When behavior is strengthened (increases in the future) and stimulus is present; positive reinforcement::behavior is strengthened and stimulus is removed; negative reinforcement:: behavior is weakened and stimulus is presented; positive punishment::behavior is weakened and stimulus is removed; negative punishment. One particular stimulus may be involved in reinforcement and punishment of diff behaviors in the sme situation depending on whether the stimulus is presented or removed after behavior. Ex: negative reinforcement with Kathy and dog. Behaviour presented (dog bite) after a behavior, the behavior is weakened and removed after a behavior, the behavior is strengthened Factors that Influence the Effectiveness of Punishment Immediacy, contingency, establishing operations, individual differences and magnitude Immediacy When a punishing stimulus immediately follows a behavior, or when the loss of a reinforcer occurs immediately after the behavior, the behavior is more likely to be weakened. For punishment to be most effective, consequence must follow the behavior immediately. As the delay btwn the behavior and consequence increases, the effectiveness of the consequence as a punisher decreases. Contingency Punishment stimulus should occur every time the behavior occurs, so we would say tht the punishing consequence is contingent on the behavior when the punisher follows the behavior each time the behavior occurs and the punisher doesn’t occur when the behavior does not occur. Motivating Operations Establishing operations (EO) and abolishing operations (AO) influence effectiveness of reinforcers and punishers. An EO is an event or a condition tht mkes a consequence more effective as a punisher (or a reinforcer). An AO is an event or a condition tht mkes a consequence less effective as a punisher or a reinforcer. Ex: dessert taken away frm a misbehaving child will be a more effective punisher if the child hasn’t eaten any dessert yet and is still hungry (EO) AND be a less effective punisher if the child had 2-3 helpings of the dessert already and not no longer hungry (AO).
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In the case of positive punishment, any event or condition tht enhances the aversiveness of a stimulus event makes tht event a more effective punisher (EO), whereas events tht minimize the aversiveness of a stimulus event mke it less effective as a punisher (AO) Individual Differences and Magnitude of the Punisher Punishers vary from person to person. In general, a more intense aversive stimulus is a more effective punishment
Problems with Punishment Use of punishment, especially positive punishment involving the use of painful or other aversive stimuli. Punishment may produce elicited aggression or other emotional side effects Use of punishment may result in escape or avoidance behaviours by the person whose behavior is being punished The use of punishment may be negatively reinforcing for the person using punishment, and thus may result in the misuse or overuse of punishment. When punishment is used, its use is modeled, and observers or ppl whose behavior is punished may be more likely to use punishment themselves in the future Punishment is associated with a number of ethical issues and issues of acceptability
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CH.4 REINFORCEMENT Reinforcement: the process in which a behavior is strengthened by the immediate consequence tht reliably follows its occurrence. When a behavior is strengthened it is more likely to occur again the future. Ex: Thorndike’s law of effect with the hungry cat in the cage hittng level with paw to open it to get food Defining Reinforcement When a behavior results in a favourable outcome (one tht contributes to the well being or survival of the animal), tht behavior is more likely to be repeated in the future in similar circumstances It is defined as the occurrence of a particular behavior, is followed by an immediate consequence, and tht results in the strengthening of the behavior (the person is more likely to engage in the behavior again in the future) We can determine tht a behavior is strengthened when there is an increase in its frequency, duration, intensity or speed (decreased latency). Operant behavior: a behavior is strengthened through the process of reinforcement. An operant behavior acts on the environment to produce a consequence and in turn is ctrlld by or occurs again the future as a result of its immediate consequence. The consequence tht strengthens an operant behavior is called a reinforcer. Ex; child crying at night to gain parent’s attention It is correct to say u reinforce a behavior (or a response). You are strengthening a behavior by reinforcing it. It is incorrect to say u reinforce a person. Positive and Negative Reinforcement Both are processes tht strengthen a behavior, both increase probability tht the behavior will occur in the future. They’re only distinguished only by the nature of the consequence tht follows the behavior. Positive Reinforcement: the occurrence of a behavior, addition of a stimulus (a reinforcer) or an increase in the intensity of a stimulus and which results in the strengthening of the behavior Negative Reinforcement: occurrence of a behavior, removal of a stimulus (an aversive stimulus) or a decrease in the intensity of a stimulus and results in strengthening of the behavior Stimulus: an object or event tht can be detected by one of the senses and thus has the potential to influence the person (stimuli is plural). It can be behavior of the person or of others In positive reinforcement, the stimulus that is presented or tht appears after the behavior is called a positive reinforcer ( a pleasant, desirable, or valuable tht a person will try to get). In negative reinforcement, the stimulus tht is removed or avoided after the behavior is called an aversive stimulus- unpleasant, painful or annoying tht a person will try to get away from or avoid. Pos reinforcement, a responses produces a stimulus whereas in negative reinforcement,
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a response removes or prevents the occurrence of a stimulus; in both cases, the behavior is more likely to occur in the future negative reinforcement nd punishment; negative (removal or subtraction) reinforcement (like positive reinforcement) increases or strengthens a behavior. Punishment decreases or weakens a behavior. Reinforcement is alwys defined by the effect it has on the behavior: Functional definition. Ex: child completes school wrk nd teacher congratulates him and pats him on his back. It can be positive if the praise leads the child to complete more school tasks in the future. Hwever teacher’s attention may not be reinforce for every children so u have to try it out and measure its effect on the behavior. Ask urself 3 questions when analyzing a situation and determine whether it illustrates positive or negative reinforcement; 1. What is the behavior; 2. What happened immediately after the behavior (was a stimulus added or removed); 3. What happened to the behavior in the future (was the behavior strengthened? Was it more likely to occur?) Social vs. Automatic Reinforcement When a behavior produces a reinforcing consequence through the actions of another person, the process is Social reinforcement. Ex; social pos reinforcmnt might involve asking ur roommate to bring u bag of chips. Social neg reinforcmnt involve asking ur roommate to turn down the TV when it is too loud. In both cases consequence of behavior was produced through the action of another person. When the behavior produces a reinforcing consequence through direct contact with the physical environment the process is automatic reinforcement. Ex: automatic pos reinforcement would be if u wnt to kitchen nd got chips for urself. Automatic neg reinforcmnt would be getting remote and turn dwn the tv volume by urself. In both cases, the reinforcing consequence was not produced by another person Premack priniciple: a type of positive reinforcement involves the opportunity to engage in a high probability behavior (a preferred behavior) as a consequence of a low probability behavior (a less preferred behavior), to increase the low probability behavior. Ex; doing hwk before going to play Escape and Avoidance Behaviours Escape behaviour: occurrence of the behavior results in the termination of an aversive stimulus tht was already present when the behavior occurred. The person escapes frm the aversive stimulus and tht behavior is strengthened. Avoidance behavior: occurrence of the behavior prevents an aversive stimulus from occurring. The person avoids the aversive stimulus by engaging in a particular behavior and tht behavior is strengthened.
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both escape and avoidance are types of negative reinforcement; therefore both result in increase in the rate of the behavior tht terminated or avoided the aversive stimulus. Conditioned and Unconditioned Reinforces Escape from painful stimulation or extreme levels of stimulation is naturally negatively reinforcing because escape from or avoidance of these stimuli also contributes to survival. These natural reinforcers are called unconditioned reinforcers because they function as reinforcers the first time they are presented to most human beings; no prior experience with these stimuli is needed for them to function as reinforcers. Unconditioned reinforcers are sometimes called primary reinforcers. Conditioned reinforcers: also called secondary reinforce. It is a stimulus tht was once neutral (it cnt influence the behavior tht it follows) but became established as a reinforcer by being paird with an unconditioned reinforcer an already established conditioned reinforcer. Ex; money to obtain other reinforcers Token: It can be used as a conditioned reinforcer to modify human behavior. It is presented to the person aftr a desirable behavior and later the person exchanges the token for other reinforcers (backup reinforcers) because the tokens are paired with the backup reinforcers and become reinforcers for the desirable behavior Generalized conditioned reinforcer: when a conditioned reinforce is paired with a wide variety of other reinforcers. Ex; money, praise, or tokens in token economy Factors That Influence the Effectiveness of Reinforcement Immediacy Time btwn occurrence of a behavior and reinforcing consequence is important. For the consequence to be most effective as a reinforcer it should occur immediately after the response occurs. The longer the delay btwn esponse and consequence, the weaker the connection btwn the two. If its too long then there will be no contiguity and consequence wont have effect on the behavior. Response: one instance of a behavior Contingency If a response is consistently followed by an immediate consequence, tht consequence is more likely to reinforce the response. When the response produces the consequence and the consequence does not occur unless the response occurs first, we say that a contingency exists between the response and the consequence. When contingency exists, the consequence is more likely to reinforce the response. Ex; u turn key and car starts Motivating Operations
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Events that can mke a particular consequence more or less reinforcing at some time than at other times. These antecedent events called motivating operations (MOs) alter the value of a reinforcer. there are 2 types of MOs; establishing operations and abolishing operations. Establishing operation: makes reinforce more potent (it establishes the effectiveness of a reinforcer) Abolishing operation: makes a reinforce less potent (it abolishes or decreases the effectiveness of a reinforcer) Motivating operations have 2 effects: a) they alter the value of a reinforcer and b) they make the behavior tht produces tht reinforce more or less likely to occur at tht time. An EO mkes a reinforce more potent nd mkes a behavior tht produces the reinforce more likely and AO mkes a reinforce less potent and makes a behavior tht produces tht reinforce less likely. Deprivation: a type of establishing operation tht increases the effectiveness of most unconditioned reinforcers and some conditioned reinforcers. Satiation: a type of abolishing operation. It occurs when a person has recently consumed a large amnt of a particular reinforce or had substantial exposure to a reinforcing stimulus. Although substantial exposure to, or consumption of a reinforce decreases the effectiveness of a reinforcer, the effects of satiation diminish over time. When an event increases the aversiveness of a stimulus, escape from or removal of the stimulus becomes more reinforcing(EO). When an event decreases the aversiveness of a stimulus, escape from or removal of the stimulus becomes less reinforcing (AO).
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Individual Differences The likelihood of a consequence being a reinforce varies from person to person, so it is important to determine tht a particular consequence is a reinforcer for a particular person
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Magnitude Amnt of reinforce. The effectiveness of a stimulus as a reinforcer is greater if the amnt or magnitude of a stimulus is greater.
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Schedules of Reinforcement Schedule of reinforcement: for a particular behavior specifies whether every response is followed by a reinforcer or whether only some responses are followed by a reinforcer. A continuous reinforcement schedule: each occurrence of a response is reinforced. Intermittent reinforcement schedule: each occurrence of the response is not reinforced. Rather, responses are occasionally or intermittently reinforced. Acquisition: the person is acquiring a new behavior. When enforcing CRF. Maintenance: the behavior is maintained over time with the use of intermittent reinforcement. When using IRS.
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Ferster and Skinner studied IRS. In their experiments, pigeons in experimental chambers pecked round disks mounted on the wall of the chamber in front of them. 4 basic types of schedules: fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, and variable interval. Fixed ratio schedule: it based on the numbr of responses tht occur. In this schedule, a specific or fixed numbr of responses must occur before the reinforcer is delivered. Variable ratio schedule: the number of responses needed for reinforcement varies each time arnd an avg number. Ex; slot machine in casinos or sales person (the frequency matters) Fixed Interval Schedule: the interval of time is fixed, or stays the sme each time. Ex: in a fixed interval 20 second schedule of reinforcement, the first response tht occurs after 20 secs has elapsed results in the reinforcer. Responses tht occur before the 20 secs aren’t reinforced. Only one response is needed but must occur after the interval. A greater rate of responding near the end of the interval is characteristic of FI schedules of reinforcement. Variable Interval Schedule: as in an FI schedule, the reinforcer is delivered for the first response tht occurs after an interval of time has elapsed. The difference is tht in a VI schedule, each time interval is a different length. The interval varies arnd a avg time. Reinforcing Different Dimensions of Behavior Reinforcement may also influence other dimensions of a behavior such as duration, intensity, or latency. If a reinforce is contingent on a particular duration of a behavior, tht duration of the behavior is more likely to occur. Ex; completing hwk (hwever long it tkes) then playing outside for a child. Likewise in intensity and latency. Concurrent Schedules of Reinforcement Concurrent schedules of reinforcement: all of the schedules of reinforcement tht are in effect for a person’s behaviors at one time. Concurrent operants: number of diff behaviors or response options are concurrently available for the person. Response effort: the amnt of force, exertion, or time involved in executing a response. With an increase in response effort for one behavior, the probability of tht behavior decreases relative to the probability of a functionality equivalent alternative behavior. When using reinforcement to increase desirable behavior u must also consider the the schedule of reinforcement for the undesirable behavior. CH.5 Extinction It is a process tht weakens operant behavior. Defining Extinction
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A behavior tht had been reinforced for a period of time was no longer reinforced and behavior stopped occurring Extinction occurs when a behavior tht has been previously reinforced, no longer results in the reinforcing consequences, and therefore, the behavior stops occurring in the future. Skinner and then joined by Ferster demonstrated the principle of extinction with lab animals. When the pigeon in the exprmntl chamber no longer recvd food as a reinforce for pecking the key, the pigeon’s key-pecking behavior stopped. When the lab rat no longer rcvd food pellets for pressing the lever, the lever-pressing behavior decreased and eventually stopped U don’t extinct a person but rather extinguish a behavior. U could put a behavior on extinction not a person. Extinction Burst In the extinction process is tht once behavior is no longer reinforced, it increases briefly in frequency, duration or intensity before it decreases and ultimately stops is called extinction burst. Ex: a remote ctrl tht isn’t working In an extinction burst, another characteristic is novel behaviors which are behaviors tht don’t typically occur in a particular situation which may occur for a brief period when a behavior is no longer reinforced. Ex; child crying at night. After parents stop going to her room (extinction), she cried for longer time and stopped (extinction burst) but she also screamed and hit her pillow (novel behaviors). Novel behaviors during emotional bursts may include emotional responses as well. Extinction burst is a natural characteristic of an extinction situation, it’s not a conscious process Spontaneous Recovery It is when a behavior may occur again even after it has not occurred for some time. It is the natural tendency for the behavior to occur again in situations tht are similar to those in which it occurred and was reinforced before extinction If extinction is still place when spontaneous recovery occurs (if no reinforcement), the behavior will not continue for long. Ex: opening the back door to his apt, if it opens one day, his behavior of using tht door will be reinforced and he will more likely to try to use tht door again. Finding door open occasionally would be an example of intermittent reinforcement which would increase behavioural persistence or resistance to extinction in the future. Procedural Variations of Extinction If a behavior is positively reinforced, a consequence is applied or added after the behavior. Therefore, extinction of a positively reinforced behavior involves withholding the consequence tht was previously delivered after the behavior. (when the behavior no longer results in the delivery of the reinforcing consequence, the behavior no longer occurs)
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If behavior is negatively reinforced behavior results in the removal or avoidance of an aversive stimulus. Extinction of a negatively reinforced behavior therefore involves eliminating the escape or avoidance tht was reinforcing the behavior. When behavior no longer results in escape frm or avoidance of an aversive stimulus, behavior eventually stops. Ex; suppose tht u wear earplugs in negatively reinforced by escaping frm the loud noise, if they weren’t functional u would stop wearing them. Another example; lying to parents when missing ur curfew because they’re asleep to avoid aversive consequence of being grounded but but if her parent was awake in bed and knew if she cme home late or not then she would quit lying when she got home late. An appropriate reinforce must be identified to be eliminated, or else the process does not function as extinction Misconception abt Extinction Ignoring is not extinction but rather removal of the reinforcer for a behavior. Only ignoring the prblm functions as extinction only if attention is the reinforcer.
Factors that influence extinction - 2 imp factors the influence extinction: the reinforcement schedule before extinction and the occurrence of reinforcement after extinction. The reinforcement schedule partly determines whether extinction results in a rapid decrease in the behavior or a more gradual decrease. - When behavior is continuously reinforced, it decreases rapidly once the reinforcement is terminated. In contrast, when a behavior is intermittently reinforced, it often decreases more gradually once the reinforcement is terminated. Ex: vending machine (continuous reinforcement), if you don’t get money back you’ll stop trying immediately again VS. slot machine (intermittent reinforcement- no reinforcement) so more likely ur going to try again before giving up. - Resistance to extinction: intermittent reinforcement before extinction produces it; the behavior persists once extinction is implemented. Continuous reinforcement before extinction (less behavioural persistent). Because of resistance to extinction, the reinforcement schedule before extinction has implications for the successful use of extinction in a behavior mod prgrm Another factor that influences extinction is the occurrence of reinforcement after extinction. If reinforcement occurs in the course of extinction, it tkes longer for the behavior to decrease because reinforcement of the behavior, once extinction has been started, amnts to intermittent reinforcement which mkes the behavior more resistant to extinction. If behavior occurs during spontaneous recovery, the behavior may increase to its level before extinction. CH.6: PUNISHMENT
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Negative and positive reinforcement are processes tht strengthen operant behavior and extinction is a process tht weaken the operant behavior, also punishment Defining Punishment When a person engaged in a behavior and there was an immediate consequence tht made it less likely tht the person would repeat the behavior in similar situations in the future. Punisher: also called aversive stimulus, is a consequence tht mkes a particular behavior less likely to occur in the future. It is defined by the effect of the behavior it follows. A stimulus or event is a punisher when it decreases the frequency of the behavior it follows. you can’t define punishment by whether the consequence appears unfavourable, unpleasant, or aversive. You can conclude tht a particular consequence is punishing only if the behavior decreases in the future. A misconception about punishment In behav. Mod is the process in which consequence of a behavior results in a future decrease in the occurrence of the behavior. in some context, punishment not only involves the hope tht the behavior will cease but also elements of retribution or retaliation, part of the intent is to hurt the person who has committed the crime. Positive and Negative Punishment Difference btwn the two is determined by the consequence of the behavior. Positive punishment: occurrence of a behavior, followed by the presentation of an aversive stimulus and the behavior is less likely to occur in the future. Ex: girl slapping herself in the face and behavior decreased as a result of electric shocks. Another form of positive punishment is based on the Premack principle which states tht when a person is mde to engage in a low probability behavior contingent on a high probability behavior, the high probability behavior will decrease in frequency. That is, after engaging in a problem behavior, a person has to do something they don’t want to do, the person will be less likely to engage in the prblm behavior in the future Negative punishment: occurrence of a behavior, followed by removal of a reinforcing stimulus, and behavior is less likely to occur in the future. They’re parallel to the definitions of positive and negative reinforcement. Reinforcement strengthens a behavior or mkes it more likely to occur in the future whereas punishment weakens a behavior or mkes it less likely to occur in the future. Decrease in behavior after punishment occurs immediately, whereas in extinction it tkes longer for the behavior to decrease and an extinction burst often occurs where the behavior increases briefly before it decreases.
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2 examples of negative punishment are time-out positive reinforcement and response cost( a negative punishment procedure in which, contingent on a behavior, a specified amount of a reinforce is removed). Both involve the loss of a reinforcing stimulus or activity after the occurrence of a problem behavior. Extinction and negative punishment weaken behavior; extinction involves withholding the reinforce tht was maintaining the behavior and negative punishment involves removing or withdrawing a positive reinforce after the behavior; the reinforcer tht is removed in neg punishment is one the individual had already acquired and is not necessarily the sme reinforce tht was maintaining the behavior. Ex: child interrupting parents and behavior is reinforced by his parents’ attention (they scold him each time he interrupts); extinction is withholding the parents’ attention each time he interrupts and neg punishment would be other reinforce like losing allowance money or opportunity to watch TV. Both decrease in the behavior of interrupting. Other names for positive punishment: punishment by application, punishment by contingent presentation of a stimulus, punishment by presentation of an aversive stimulus and response contingent presentation of a punisher Other names for negative punishment: punishment by withdrawal, punishment by loss of reinforcers, the penalty contingency and response-contingent removal of a positive reinforce. Unconditioned and Conditioned Punishers Unconditioned punisher: a stimulus or event tht is naturally punishing because avoiding or minimizing contact with such a stimulus has survival value. No prior conditioning is needed for an unconditioned punisher to function as a punisher. Examples are painful stimuli or extreme levels of stimulation. Ex; touch hot objects- pain, extreme level of auditory, visual stimulation, etc. Conditioned punisher: a previously neutral stimulus tht has been paired a number of times with an established reinforcer and consequently functions as a reinforcer itself. Any stimulus or event may become a conditioned punisher if it is paired with an established punisher The word “NO” is considered a generalized conditioned punisher because it has been paired with a variety of other unconditioned and conditioned punishers over the course of person’s life. Ex: child reaching for electrical outlet and parent says NO, child less likely to reach for it in the future Threats may become conditioned punishers. Stimuli associated with the loss of reinforcers may become conditioned punishers. A parking/speeding ticket is assoctd with the loss of money, so the ticket is the conditioned punisher for many ppl but other factors such as magnitude and schedule of punishment may influence effectiveness of the punishment.
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Warning from parents if it was paired with loss of reinforcers such as allowance money, privileges, or preferred activities; or even facial expressions. A conditioned punisher is defined functionally and only if it weakens the behavior tht it follows Contrasting Reinforcement and Punishment When behavior is strengthened (increases in the future) and stimulus is present; positive reinforcement::behavior is strengthened and stimulus is removed; negative reinforcement:: behavior is weakened and stimulus is presented; positive punishment::behavior is weakened and stimulus is removed; negative punishment. One particular stimulus may be involved in reinforcement and punishment of diff behaviors in the sme situation depending on whether the stimulus is presented or removed after behavior. Ex: negative reinforcement with Kathy and dog. Behaviour presented (dog bite) after a behavior, the behavior is weakened and removed after a behavior, the behavior is strengthened Factors that Influence the Effectiveness of Punishment Immediacy, contingency, establishing operations, individual differences and magnitude Immediacy When a punishing stimulus immediately follows a behavior, or when the loss of a reinforcer occurs immediately after the behavior, the behavior is more likely to be weakened. For punishment to be most effective, consequence must follow the behavior immediately. As the delay btwn the behavior and consequence increases, the effectiveness of the consequence as a punisher decreases. Contingency Punishment stimulus should occur every time the behavior occurs, so we would say tht the punishing consequence is contingent on the behavior when the punisher follows the behavior each time the behavior occurs and the punisher doesn’t occur when the behavior does not occur. Motivating Operations Establishing operations (EO) and abolishing operations (AO) influence effectiveness of reinforcers and punishers. An EO is an event or a condition tht mkes a consequence more effective as a punisher (or a reinforcer). An AO is an event or a condition tht mkes a consequence less effective as a punisher or a reinforcer. Ex: dessert taken away frm a misbehaving child will be a more effective punisher if the child hasn’t eaten any dessert yet and is still hungry (EO) AND be a less effective punisher if the child had 2-3 helpings of the dessert already and not no longer hungry (AO).
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In the case of positive punishment, any event or condition tht enhances the aversiveness of a stimulus event makes tht event a more effective punisher (EO), whereas events tht minimize the aversiveness of a stimulus event mke it less effective as a punisher (AO) Individual Differences and Magnitude of the Punisher Punishers vary from person to person. In general, a more intense aversive stimulus is a more effective punishment
Problems with Punishment Use of punishment, especially positive punishment involving the use of painful or other aversive stimuli. Punishment may produce elicited aggression or other emotional side effects Use of punishment may result in escape or avoidance behaviours by the person whose behavior is being punished The use of punishment may be negatively reinforcing for the person using punishment, and thus may result in the misuse or overuse of punishment. When punishment is used, its use is modeled, and observers or ppl whose behavior is punished may be more likely to use punishment themselves in the future Punishment is associated with a number of ethical issues and issues of acceptability
