Chapter 1 1. What is the difference between prescriptive and ...
Chapter 1 1. What is the difference between prescriptive and descriptive grammar? Prescriptive grammar aims to tell people how they should speak while descriptive grammar aims to describe the way people speak. 2. What is the difference between standard and non-standard dialect? Standard dialect is the dialect recognized worldwide in newspapers and publications. Non-standard dialect is a local dialect. 3. What is the difference between formal and informal style? Both are standard dialects. Formal style is used in formal situations while informal style is used in casual, everyday situations. Chapter 2 1. The most basic clause is composed of a __________ and a ____________. Subject, predicate 2. Noun phrases and verb phrases contain a __________ (the most important word) and 0 or more __________. Head, dependents 3. What is the difference between a function and category? Function is a relational concept. Category is a class of grammatically alike expressions. 4. “take, took, taken” are different inflectional forms of the same __________. Lexeme 5. Which parts of speech belong to open categories? Which ones belong to closed categories? Open: lexical verbs, proper nouns and common nouns, adjectives, adverbs Closed: auxiliary verbs, pronouns, prepositions, determinatives, subordinators, coordinators Chapter 3 1. What is a prototype? Any member of a category that has the full set of distinctive properties. 2. Verbs function as the head of VPs, also known as __________. Predicators 3. A set of inflectional verb forms is called a __________. Paradigm Primary Forms
Secondary Forms
Preterite
Plain form
3rd singular present
Gerund-participle
Plain present
Past participle
4. How do primary forms differ from secondary forms? Primary forms can be the sole verb. Secondary forms cannot (with the exception of the imperative use of the plain form) 5. The plain form can be further divided into 3 more contexts. What are they? Imperative, subjunctive, to and bare infinitival 6. What is shape sharing and what tests can we use to distinguish them? When different forms of the verb are identical in shape, for example, “walk” looks the same in the plain present and plain form. The substitution test and distribution test can be used to tell them apart. 7. Which of the forms are finite? All primary forms and the imperative and subjunctive plain forms. 8. Main clauses are always finite. What test can we use to determine if a subordinate clause is finite? Pronoun substitution test 9. What are the differences between an auxiliary verb and lexical verb? Auxiliary verbs can precede the subject in an interrogative class (hence the term subject-auxiliary inversion). They be negated by adding “not” immediately after. Some inflect for negation with “n’t”. 10. What are the differences between a modal auxiliary and a non-modal auxiliary? A modal auxiliary verb does not have a 3rd singular present, does not have secondary forms, and usually take a bare infinitival complement. 11. What is the difference between tense and aspect? Tense is the time relative to the moment of speech (present or predicate) and is marked by an auxiliary. Aspect is the internal temporal structure (progressive or perfect) and is marked by the gerund-participle or past participle forms of the head verb. 12. What are the three modalities associated with mood? Epistemic, deontic, dynamic 13. Is future “will” a tense, aspect, or mood? Will used to indicate future is a modality.
Chapter 4 1. What do we mean when we say the subject and predicate are separate constituents? They are independent units of structure, each taking their own dependents. 2. What is the difference between a complement and an adjunct? Complements are licensed by the verb and may not be used freely with any verb. Some verbs require a complement and the sentence would be ungrammatical if it were omitted. Adjuncts have no such restrictions. 3. How can we identify the subject? The subject precedes the verb in a canonical clause. It follows the verb in subjectauxiliary inversion. It takes the nominative case. It agrees with the verb in present tense (except modal auxiliaries). 4. What is the difference between objects and adjuncts? Objects are complements and must be licensed by the verb. It can be passivized and undergo pronoun substitution. In cases where a sentence has both an object and an adjunct, the object immediately follows the verb. 5. What is the difference between direct objects and indirect objects? Direct objects are the most directly acted upon while indirect objects are the recipient of the situation. Indirect objects can be rewritten as a prepositional phrase with “to” or “for”. Only the direct object can be fronted. 6. What is the difference between objects and predicative complements? Objects are a separate entity from the subject, while predicative complements are a property of the subject. 7. What are the two types of PCs? Subjective and objective 8. What are the two uses of “be”? Ascriptive and specifying 9. How many objects and PCs does a complex-transitive clause contain? 1 object and 1 predicative complement. 10. What are the two types of adjuncts? Modifiers and supplements Chapter 5 1. Nouns inflect for __________ and __________. Case and number
2. What are the three subclasses of nouns? Proper nouns, pronouns, common nouns 3. What is the difference between a count and non-count noun? Are non-count nouns singular or plural? Counts nouns can be counted and can have a number before them. Non-count nouns cannot be described with a number. Some non-count nouns are invariably singular, others are invariably plural, and others depend on the context. 4. What are the two categories of a determiner? Determinatives (including determinative phrases) and genitive noun phrases. 5. What is the difference between a definite and indefinite determinative? A definite determinative identifies the referent in the sentence while an indefinite determinative does not make the referent unique. When a definite determinative is used, it is understood exactly which things it is describing by everyone. 6. Other than determiner, what else can a determinative function as? “the” can also function as a modifier. “that” can also function as a subordinator. 7. What are the two structures of a noun phrase? Complements and adjuncts 8. Most complements are __________ or __________. Prepositional phrases, subordinate phrases Chapter 6 1. What is the difference between the attributive and predicative functions of an adjective? The attributive function of the adjective behaves like a modifier/adjunct. The predicative function behaves like a PC. 2. Adjectives inflect for __________. Grade 3. What is the difference between a scalar and non-scalar adjective? A scalar adjective can either inflect for grade (plain, comparative, superlative) or have a comparative meaning (comparative phrase, superlative phrase). Adjectives that cannot be compared are non-scalar. 4. What are the two structures of an adjective phrase? Complement and adjuncts/modifiers 5. Adverbs can always function as __________. Modifiers/adjuncts
6. How are many adverbs formed? Adding the affix “-ly” to the base. 7. What are the two structures of an adverb phase? Complements (restricted use) and adjuncts/modifiers Chapter 7 1. Prepositional phrases do not inflect and have meanings in __________ or __________. Space, time 2. What are the two structures of a prepositional phrase? Complements and adjuncts 3. What is a particle? A preposition that can come freely between the verb and direct object. Chapter 8 1. What is polarity? The system in which negative and positive clauses contrast. 2. What are the four ways (possibly more) to identify negative clauses? Not even, neither/nor, cannot be modified by so, reversed polarity tags 3. What are the two ways to have subclausal negation? Negative affix on words (“unkind”) and constituent negative (negation of a word) 4. What is the difference between verbal and nonverbal negation? In verbal negation, there is a negative inflection “n’t” on the verb or “not” modifying the verb. In nonverbal negation, “not” modifies something other than the verb or a negative word is used. 5. Give an example of a word that is polarity-sensitive. Any Chapter 9 1. What are the three things you can do with speech acts (other than making a statement)? Ask questions, give commands, express surprise. 2. What are the two types of questions in a closed interrogative? Polar questions and alternative questions 3. What are the fronting rules for interrogative phrases in open interrogatives?
If there is one interrogative phrase, it is always fronted. When there are two, one is fronted and one is placed at the end. 4. What is the difference between an information question and direction question? An information question seeks information. A direction question expresses a directive. 5. What is an echo question? A type of direction question that seeks confirmation. It repeats part of the stimulus and rising intonation. 6. Exclamatory phrases contain __________ or __________, which is always fronted. What, how 7. What are the features of an imperatives clause? The subject, if 2nd person, can be dropped. The verb is in secondary plain form. “Do” is required for negation. 8. Aside from directives, what are the other two uses of the imperative? Wishes and conditions Chapter 10 1. What are the three types of finite subordinate clauses and how are they different from one another? Relative, comparative, content. Relative clauses modify the noun phrase. Comparative clauses modify another clause. Content clauses complement a phrase. 2. Give an example of when the subordinator is inadmissible in a declarative content clause. *I left before that he arrived. 3. What are the two interrogative subordinators of a closed interrogative content clause? If and whether 4. How is an open interrogative content clause similar and different from its matrix counterpart? Like its counterpart, the interrogative phrase is fronted. However, there is no subjectauxiliary inversion. 5. In what construction can interrogative content clauses function as adjuncts? Exhaustive conditional construction 6. Exclamative content clauses can only function as __________. Complements
Secondary Forms
Preterite
Plain form
3rd singular present
Gerund-participle
Plain present
Past participle
4. How do primary forms differ from secondary forms? Primary forms can be the sole verb. Secondary forms cannot (with the exception of the imperative use of the plain form) 5. The plain form can be further divided into 3 more contexts. What are they? Imperative, subjunctive, to and bare infinitival 6. What is shape sharing and what tests can we use to distinguish them? When different forms of the verb are identical in shape, for example, “walk” looks the same in the plain present and plain form. The substitution test and distribution test can be used to tell them apart. 7. Which of the forms are finite? All primary forms and the imperative and subjunctive plain forms. 8. Main clauses are always finite. What test can we use to determine if a subordinate clause is finite? Pronoun substitution test 9. What are the differences between an auxiliary verb and lexical verb? Auxiliary verbs can precede the subject in an interrogative class (hence the term subject-auxiliary inversion). They be negated by adding “not” immediately after. Some inflect for negation with “n’t”. 10. What are the differences between a modal auxiliary and a non-modal auxiliary? A modal auxiliary verb does not have a 3rd singular present, does not have secondary forms, and usually take a bare infinitival complement. 11. What is the difference between tense and aspect? Tense is the time relative to the moment of speech (present or predicate) and is marked by an auxiliary. Aspect is the internal temporal structure (progressive or perfect) and is marked by the gerund-participle or past participle forms of the head verb. 12. What are the three modalities associated with mood? Epistemic, deontic, dynamic 13. Is future “will” a tense, aspect, or mood? Will used to indicate future is a modality.
Chapter 4 1. What do we mean when we say the subject and predicate are separate constituents? They are independent units of structure, each taking their own dependents. 2. What is the difference between a complement and an adjunct? Complements are licensed by the verb and may not be used freely with any verb. Some verbs require a complement and the sentence would be ungrammatical if it were omitted. Adjuncts have no such restrictions. 3. How can we identify the subject? The subject precedes the verb in a canonical clause. It follows the verb in subjectauxiliary inversion. It takes the nominative case. It agrees with the verb in present tense (except modal auxiliaries). 4. What is the difference between objects and adjuncts? Objects are complements and must be licensed by the verb. It can be passivized and undergo pronoun substitution. In cases where a sentence has both an object and an adjunct, the object immediately follows the verb. 5. What is the difference between direct objects and indirect objects? Direct objects are the most directly acted upon while indirect objects are the recipient of the situation. Indirect objects can be rewritten as a prepositional phrase with “to” or “for”. Only the direct object can be fronted. 6. What is the difference between objects and predicative complements? Objects are a separate entity from the subject, while predicative complements are a property of the subject. 7. What are the two types of PCs? Subjective and objective 8. What are the two uses of “be”? Ascriptive and specifying 9. How many objects and PCs does a complex-transitive clause contain? 1 object and 1 predicative complement. 10. What are the two types of adjuncts? Modifiers and supplements Chapter 5 1. Nouns inflect for __________ and __________. Case and number
2. What are the three subclasses of nouns? Proper nouns, pronouns, common nouns 3. What is the difference between a count and non-count noun? Are non-count nouns singular or plural? Counts nouns can be counted and can have a number before them. Non-count nouns cannot be described with a number. Some non-count nouns are invariably singular, others are invariably plural, and others depend on the context. 4. What are the two categories of a determiner? Determinatives (including determinative phrases) and genitive noun phrases. 5. What is the difference between a definite and indefinite determinative? A definite determinative identifies the referent in the sentence while an indefinite determinative does not make the referent unique. When a definite determinative is used, it is understood exactly which things it is describing by everyone. 6. Other than determiner, what else can a determinative function as? “the” can also function as a modifier. “that” can also function as a subordinator. 7. What are the two structures of a noun phrase? Complements and adjuncts 8. Most complements are __________ or __________. Prepositional phrases, subordinate phrases Chapter 6 1. What is the difference between the attributive and predicative functions of an adjective? The attributive function of the adjective behaves like a modifier/adjunct. The predicative function behaves like a PC. 2. Adjectives inflect for __________. Grade 3. What is the difference between a scalar and non-scalar adjective? A scalar adjective can either inflect for grade (plain, comparative, superlative) or have a comparative meaning (comparative phrase, superlative phrase). Adjectives that cannot be compared are non-scalar. 4. What are the two structures of an adjective phrase? Complement and adjuncts/modifiers 5. Adverbs can always function as __________. Modifiers/adjuncts
6. How are many adverbs formed? Adding the affix “-ly” to the base. 7. What are the two structures of an adverb phase? Complements (restricted use) and adjuncts/modifiers Chapter 7 1. Prepositional phrases do not inflect and have meanings in __________ or __________. Space, time 2. What are the two structures of a prepositional phrase? Complements and adjuncts 3. What is a particle? A preposition that can come freely between the verb and direct object. Chapter 8 1. What is polarity? The system in which negative and positive clauses contrast. 2. What are the four ways (possibly more) to identify negative clauses? Not even, neither/nor, cannot be modified by so, reversed polarity tags 3. What are the two ways to have subclausal negation? Negative affix on words (“unkind”) and constituent negative (negation of a word) 4. What is the difference between verbal and nonverbal negation? In verbal negation, there is a negative inflection “n’t” on the verb or “not” modifying the verb. In nonverbal negation, “not” modifies something other than the verb or a negative word is used. 5. Give an example of a word that is polarity-sensitive. Any Chapter 9 1. What are the three things you can do with speech acts (other than making a statement)? Ask questions, give commands, express surprise. 2. What are the two types of questions in a closed interrogative? Polar questions and alternative questions 3. What are the fronting rules for interrogative phrases in open interrogatives?
If there is one interrogative phrase, it is always fronted. When there are two, one is fronted and one is placed at the end. 4. What is the difference between an information question and direction question? An information question seeks information. A direction question expresses a directive. 5. What is an echo question? A type of direction question that seeks confirmation. It repeats part of the stimulus and rising intonation. 6. Exclamatory phrases contain __________ or __________, which is always fronted. What, how 7. What are the features of an imperatives clause? The subject, if 2nd person, can be dropped. The verb is in secondary plain form. “Do” is required for negation. 8. Aside from directives, what are the other two uses of the imperative? Wishes and conditions Chapter 10 1. What are the three types of finite subordinate clauses and how are they different from one another? Relative, comparative, content. Relative clauses modify the noun phrase. Comparative clauses modify another clause. Content clauses complement a phrase. 2. Give an example of when the subordinator is inadmissible in a declarative content clause. *I left before that he arrived. 3. What are the two interrogative subordinators of a closed interrogative content clause? If and whether 4. How is an open interrogative content clause similar and different from its matrix counterpart? Like its counterpart, the interrogative phrase is fronted. However, there is no subjectauxiliary inversion. 5. In what construction can interrogative content clauses function as adjuncts? Exhaustive conditional construction 6. Exclamative content clauses can only function as __________. Complements
