Chapter 13 Installation and Operations 1 Installation and operations ...
Chapter 13 Installation and Operations Installation and operations This chapter examines the actives needed to install the information system and successfully convert the organization to using it. Introduction
Managing the change to a new system whether it is computerized or not is one of the most difficult tasks in any organization. One of the earliest models for managing organizational change was developed by Kurt Lewin. Lewin argued that change is a three step process: unfreeze, move, and refreeze. Frist, the project team must unfreeze the existing habits and norms so that change is possible. Most of the systems development life cycle SDLC to this point has laid the groundwork for unfreezing Users are aware of the new system being developed, some have participated in an analysis of the current system, and some have helped design the new system These activities have helped to unfreeze the current habits and norms. The Second step is to help the organization move the new system via a migration plan. The migration plan has two major elements. One is technical, which include how the new system will be installed and how data is the as=is system will be moved into the to-be system. The second component is organizational, which include helping users understand the change and motivating them to adopt it. The third step is to refreeze the new system as the habitual way of performing the work processes ensuring that the new system successfully becoming the standard way of performing the business function it supports.
Conversion
Conversion is the technical process by which the new system replaces the old system The migration plan specifies what activities will be performed when and by whom and include both technical aspects and organizational aspects Conversion refers to the technical aspects of the migration plan There are three major steps The first step in the conversion plan is to buy and install any needed hardware Nothing can stop a conversion plan in its tracks as easily as the failure of a vendor to deliver needed equipment. The second step is to install the software The third step is to convert the data from the as is system to the to be system Conversion can be thought of along three dimensions: the systole by which the conversion is done, what locations or work groups are converted at what time, and what modules of the system are converted at what time.
1
Chapter 13 Installation and Operations Direct conversion
With direct conversion, the new system is instantly replaces the old system. The new system is turned on and the old system is immediately turned off. Direct conversion is the simplest and most straightforward. However, it is the most risky, because any problems with the new system that have escaped detection during testing may seriously disrupt the organization
Parallel conversion
With parallel conversion the new system is operated side by side with the old system; both systems are used simultaneously. After some time period of parallel operation and intense comparison between the two systems, the old system is turned off and the organization continues using the new system. This approach is more likely to catch any major bugs in the new system and prevent the organization from suffering major problems. The problem with this approach is the added expense of operating two systems that perform the same function.
Conversion location
There are at least 3 fundamentally different approaches to selecting the way in which different organization locations are converted: pilot conversion, phased conversion, and simultaneous conversion
Pilot conversion
One or more locations or units/work groups within a location are selected to be converted first as part of a pilot test. The locations participating in the pilot test are converted. The advantage of providing an addition level of testing before the system is widely deployed thought the organization, so that any problems with the system affect only the pilot locations Require more time before the system installed at all organizational locations. Also, it means that different organizational units are using different versions of the system and business processes, which may make it difficult for them to exchange data.
Phased conversion
The system is installed sequentially at different locations. A first set of locations are converted, then a second set, then a third set, and so on till all locations are converted Sometimes there is a deliberate delay between the different sets, so that any problems with the system are detected before too much of the organization is affected.
2
Chapter 13 Installation and Operations Simultaneous conversion
Means that all locations are converted at the same time. The new system install is made ready at all locations, and at a present time, all users begin using the new system. Simultaneous conversion eliminates problems with having different organizational units using different systems and processes. The organization must have sufficient staff to perform the conversion and train the users at all location simultaneously.
Whole System conversion
In which the entire system install at one time, is the most common.
Modular conversion
When the modules within a system are separate and distinct, organizations sometime choose to convert the new system one module at a time. Each module either must be written to work with both the old and new system or object wrappers must be used to encapsulate the old system from the new Modular conversion reduces the amount of training required to begin using the new system. Users need training in only the new module being implemented However, modular conversion does take longer and has more steps than does the whole-system process.
Risk
Parallel conversion is less risky than is direct conversion because it has a greater change of detecting bugs that have gone undiscovered in testing. Pilot conversion is less risky than is phased conversion or simultaneous conversion because it bugs do occur, they occur in pilot test locations. Likewise, converting a few modules at a time lowers the probability of a bug because there is more likely to be a bug in the whole system than in any given module Extensive methodical testing, including alpha and beta testing, the probability of undetected bugs is lower than if the testing was less rigorous.
Cost
Parallel conversion is more expensive than direct conversion because it requires that two systems be operated at the same time. Parallel conversion also requires the results of the two systems to be completely cross checked to make sure there are no differences between the two. Pilot conversion and phased conversion have somewhat similar costs. Simultaneous conversion has higher costs because more staff is required to support all the locations as they simultaneously switch from the old to the new system.
3
Chapter 13 Installation and Operations Time
Direct conversion is the fastest because it is immediate. Parallel conversion takes longer because the full advantages of the new system do not become available until the old system is turned off. Simultaneous conversion is fastest because all locations are converted at the same time. Phased conversion usually takes longer than pilot conversion because usually once the pilot is test is complete all remaining locations are simultaneously converted. Phased conversion proceeds in waves, often requiring several months before all locations are converted. Likewise, modular conversion takes longer than whole system conversion because the models are introduced one after another.
Change Management
The process of helping people to adopt and adapt to the to-be system and its accompanying work processes without undue stress. There are three key roles in any major organizational change. First, is the sponsor of the change the person who wants the change to occur. Second role is the change agent leading the change effort. The change agent, charged with actually planning and implementing the change, is usually someone outside of the business. Third role is that of potential adopter or target of the change, the people who actually must change. These are for whom the new system is designed and who will ultimately choose to use or not use the system. Resistance to change is common in most organizations. Successful change requires that people want to adopt the change and are able to adopt the change. Change management plan has four basic steps: revising management policies, assessing the cost and benefit models of potential adopters, motivating adoption, and enabling people to adopt through training.
Understanding resistance to change
Every change has a set of costs and benefits associated with it. If the benefits of accepting the change outweigh the costs of the change, then people change.
Revising Management Policies
The first major step in the change management plan is to change the management policies that were designed for the As-Is system to new management policies designed to support the To-Be system Management has three basic tools. First there is the standard operating procedures (SOP) that become the habitual routines for how work is performed The SOPs are both formal and informal. Formal SOPs define proper behavior. Informal SOPS are the norms that have developed over time for how processes are actually performed. The second aspect of management policy is defining how people assign meaning to events. 4
Chapter 13 Installation and Operations
The third aspect of management policy is resource allocations. Managers can have clear and immediate impacts on behavior by allocating resources. There is less uncertainty about management’s long term commitment to a new system when potential adopter see resources being committed to support it.
Assessing costs and benefits
Two clear and concise lists of costs and benefits provided by the new system. First list is developed from the perspective of the organization, which should flow easily from the business case developed during the feasibility study and refined over the life of the project. The second list of costs and benefits is developed from the viewpoints of the different potential adopters expected to change, or stakeholders in charge. Middle managers and first-line supervisors are the most likely to have a divergent set of costs and benefits and therefore resist change because new computer system often change how much power they have. An analysis of the costs and benefits for each set of potential adopters/stakeholders will help pinpoint those who will likely support the change and those who may resist the change. This analysis may uncover some serious problems that have the potential to block the successful adoption of the system. The first reason and most important reason is a compelling personal reason to change. All change is made by individuals, not organizations. By contrast, in an organization that is on the brink of bankruptcy, it is easier to convince individuals that change it needed.
Motivating adoption
Simply put, everyone who is expected to adopt the change must be convinced that the benefits from the To-be system outweigh the costs of changing. The other strategy to motivate the change is a political strategy. With a political strategy organization power, not information is used to motivate. This approach is often used when the cost-benefit set of target adopter has more costs than benefits. In other words, although the change may benefit the organization, there are no reasons for the potential adopter to welcome the change. In general, for any change that has true organization benefits, about 20 to 30 percent of potential adopter will be ready adopters. Another 20 to 30 percent are resistant adopters. The other 40-60 percent is reluctant adopters.
5
Chapter 13 Installation and Operations Enabling Adoption: Training
Adoption is enabled by proving the skills need to adopt the change though careful training. However, we have found that training is one of the most commonly overlooked parts of the process. Since the system is presumed to be so simple, it is taken for granted that potential adopters should be able to learn with little effort. One is to hire new employees who have the needed skills that the existing staff does not. Another is to outsource the processes to an organization that has the skills that the existing staff does not. Third alternative: training existing staff in the new business processes and the To-Be system.
What to train
Training for business systems should focus on helping the users to accomplish their jobs, not on how to use the system. First, the training must focus on those activities around the system, as well as on the system itself. Second, the training should focus on what the user needs to do, not what the system can do. Instead focus on the much small set of activities that user performs on a regular basis and ensure that users are truly expert in those. Another approach that is becoming more common is to use some form of computer based training (CBT)
Post-implementation activities
Post-implementation activities are the institutionalization of the use of the new system. The activities attempt to refreeze the organization after the successful transition to the new system.
System support
The system is officially turned over to the operations group. This group is responsible for the operation of the system. Online support is the most common form of on-demand training. This includes the documentation and help screens built into the system, as well as separate web sites that provide answers to frequently asked questions. The help desk is operated by level 1 staff who have very broad computers skills and are able to respond to a wide range of requires, from network problems and hardware to problems with commercial software problems with the business application software development in-house. The level 2 support staff members are people who know the application system well and can provide expert advice.
6
Chapter 13 Installation and Operations System maintenance
Process of refining the system to make sure it continues to meet business standards. Change requests that are likely to require a significant effort are typically handled in the same manner as system requests. Minor changes typically follow a “smaller” version of this same process. Change requests typically come from five sources. The most common source is problem reports. The second most common source of change requests is enhancement to the system from users. A third source of change requests is other system development projects. A fourth source of change requests are those that occur when underlying software or networks change. The fifth source of major change requests is senior management.
Project assessment
What was successful about the system and the project activities? Project assessment is not routine in most organizations, except for military organizations, which are accustomed to preparing after-action reports.
Project team review
Each project member prepares a short two to three page document that reports and analyzes his or her performance. The focus is on performance improvement, not penalties for mistakes made. Project initiations were actually recognized from the implemented system. The detailed analyses prepared for the expected business value. The objective is to compare the anticipated business value against the actual realized business value from the system. A formal system review also has important behavior implications for project initiation. No one wants to be the project sponsor or project manager for a project that goes radically over budget or fails to deliver promised benefits.
7
Managing the change to a new system whether it is computerized or not is one of the most difficult tasks in any organization. One of the earliest models for managing organizational change was developed by Kurt Lewin. Lewin argued that change is a three step process: unfreeze, move, and refreeze. Frist, the project team must unfreeze the existing habits and norms so that change is possible. Most of the systems development life cycle SDLC to this point has laid the groundwork for unfreezing Users are aware of the new system being developed, some have participated in an analysis of the current system, and some have helped design the new system These activities have helped to unfreeze the current habits and norms. The Second step is to help the organization move the new system via a migration plan. The migration plan has two major elements. One is technical, which include how the new system will be installed and how data is the as=is system will be moved into the to-be system. The second component is organizational, which include helping users understand the change and motivating them to adopt it. The third step is to refreeze the new system as the habitual way of performing the work processes ensuring that the new system successfully becoming the standard way of performing the business function it supports.
Conversion
Conversion is the technical process by which the new system replaces the old system The migration plan specifies what activities will be performed when and by whom and include both technical aspects and organizational aspects Conversion refers to the technical aspects of the migration plan There are three major steps The first step in the conversion plan is to buy and install any needed hardware Nothing can stop a conversion plan in its tracks as easily as the failure of a vendor to deliver needed equipment. The second step is to install the software The third step is to convert the data from the as is system to the to be system Conversion can be thought of along three dimensions: the systole by which the conversion is done, what locations or work groups are converted at what time, and what modules of the system are converted at what time.
1
Chapter 13 Installation and Operations Direct conversion
With direct conversion, the new system is instantly replaces the old system. The new system is turned on and the old system is immediately turned off. Direct conversion is the simplest and most straightforward. However, it is the most risky, because any problems with the new system that have escaped detection during testing may seriously disrupt the organization
Parallel conversion
With parallel conversion the new system is operated side by side with the old system; both systems are used simultaneously. After some time period of parallel operation and intense comparison between the two systems, the old system is turned off and the organization continues using the new system. This approach is more likely to catch any major bugs in the new system and prevent the organization from suffering major problems. The problem with this approach is the added expense of operating two systems that perform the same function.
Conversion location
There are at least 3 fundamentally different approaches to selecting the way in which different organization locations are converted: pilot conversion, phased conversion, and simultaneous conversion
Pilot conversion
One or more locations or units/work groups within a location are selected to be converted first as part of a pilot test. The locations participating in the pilot test are converted. The advantage of providing an addition level of testing before the system is widely deployed thought the organization, so that any problems with the system affect only the pilot locations Require more time before the system installed at all organizational locations. Also, it means that different organizational units are using different versions of the system and business processes, which may make it difficult for them to exchange data.
Phased conversion
The system is installed sequentially at different locations. A first set of locations are converted, then a second set, then a third set, and so on till all locations are converted Sometimes there is a deliberate delay between the different sets, so that any problems with the system are detected before too much of the organization is affected.
2
Chapter 13 Installation and Operations Simultaneous conversion
Means that all locations are converted at the same time. The new system install is made ready at all locations, and at a present time, all users begin using the new system. Simultaneous conversion eliminates problems with having different organizational units using different systems and processes. The organization must have sufficient staff to perform the conversion and train the users at all location simultaneously.
Whole System conversion
In which the entire system install at one time, is the most common.
Modular conversion
When the modules within a system are separate and distinct, organizations sometime choose to convert the new system one module at a time. Each module either must be written to work with both the old and new system or object wrappers must be used to encapsulate the old system from the new Modular conversion reduces the amount of training required to begin using the new system. Users need training in only the new module being implemented However, modular conversion does take longer and has more steps than does the whole-system process.
Risk
Parallel conversion is less risky than is direct conversion because it has a greater change of detecting bugs that have gone undiscovered in testing. Pilot conversion is less risky than is phased conversion or simultaneous conversion because it bugs do occur, they occur in pilot test locations. Likewise, converting a few modules at a time lowers the probability of a bug because there is more likely to be a bug in the whole system than in any given module Extensive methodical testing, including alpha and beta testing, the probability of undetected bugs is lower than if the testing was less rigorous.
Cost
Parallel conversion is more expensive than direct conversion because it requires that two systems be operated at the same time. Parallel conversion also requires the results of the two systems to be completely cross checked to make sure there are no differences between the two. Pilot conversion and phased conversion have somewhat similar costs. Simultaneous conversion has higher costs because more staff is required to support all the locations as they simultaneously switch from the old to the new system.
3
Chapter 13 Installation and Operations Time
Direct conversion is the fastest because it is immediate. Parallel conversion takes longer because the full advantages of the new system do not become available until the old system is turned off. Simultaneous conversion is fastest because all locations are converted at the same time. Phased conversion usually takes longer than pilot conversion because usually once the pilot is test is complete all remaining locations are simultaneously converted. Phased conversion proceeds in waves, often requiring several months before all locations are converted. Likewise, modular conversion takes longer than whole system conversion because the models are introduced one after another.
Change Management
The process of helping people to adopt and adapt to the to-be system and its accompanying work processes without undue stress. There are three key roles in any major organizational change. First, is the sponsor of the change the person who wants the change to occur. Second role is the change agent leading the change effort. The change agent, charged with actually planning and implementing the change, is usually someone outside of the business. Third role is that of potential adopter or target of the change, the people who actually must change. These are for whom the new system is designed and who will ultimately choose to use or not use the system. Resistance to change is common in most organizations. Successful change requires that people want to adopt the change and are able to adopt the change. Change management plan has four basic steps: revising management policies, assessing the cost and benefit models of potential adopters, motivating adoption, and enabling people to adopt through training.
Understanding resistance to change
Every change has a set of costs and benefits associated with it. If the benefits of accepting the change outweigh the costs of the change, then people change.
Revising Management Policies
The first major step in the change management plan is to change the management policies that were designed for the As-Is system to new management policies designed to support the To-Be system Management has three basic tools. First there is the standard operating procedures (SOP) that become the habitual routines for how work is performed The SOPs are both formal and informal. Formal SOPs define proper behavior. Informal SOPS are the norms that have developed over time for how processes are actually performed. The second aspect of management policy is defining how people assign meaning to events. 4
Chapter 13 Installation and Operations
The third aspect of management policy is resource allocations. Managers can have clear and immediate impacts on behavior by allocating resources. There is less uncertainty about management’s long term commitment to a new system when potential adopter see resources being committed to support it.
Assessing costs and benefits
Two clear and concise lists of costs and benefits provided by the new system. First list is developed from the perspective of the organization, which should flow easily from the business case developed during the feasibility study and refined over the life of the project. The second list of costs and benefits is developed from the viewpoints of the different potential adopters expected to change, or stakeholders in charge. Middle managers and first-line supervisors are the most likely to have a divergent set of costs and benefits and therefore resist change because new computer system often change how much power they have. An analysis of the costs and benefits for each set of potential adopters/stakeholders will help pinpoint those who will likely support the change and those who may resist the change. This analysis may uncover some serious problems that have the potential to block the successful adoption of the system. The first reason and most important reason is a compelling personal reason to change. All change is made by individuals, not organizations. By contrast, in an organization that is on the brink of bankruptcy, it is easier to convince individuals that change it needed.
Motivating adoption
Simply put, everyone who is expected to adopt the change must be convinced that the benefits from the To-be system outweigh the costs of changing. The other strategy to motivate the change is a political strategy. With a political strategy organization power, not information is used to motivate. This approach is often used when the cost-benefit set of target adopter has more costs than benefits. In other words, although the change may benefit the organization, there are no reasons for the potential adopter to welcome the change. In general, for any change that has true organization benefits, about 20 to 30 percent of potential adopter will be ready adopters. Another 20 to 30 percent are resistant adopters. The other 40-60 percent is reluctant adopters.
5
Chapter 13 Installation and Operations Enabling Adoption: Training
Adoption is enabled by proving the skills need to adopt the change though careful training. However, we have found that training is one of the most commonly overlooked parts of the process. Since the system is presumed to be so simple, it is taken for granted that potential adopters should be able to learn with little effort. One is to hire new employees who have the needed skills that the existing staff does not. Another is to outsource the processes to an organization that has the skills that the existing staff does not. Third alternative: training existing staff in the new business processes and the To-Be system.
What to train
Training for business systems should focus on helping the users to accomplish their jobs, not on how to use the system. First, the training must focus on those activities around the system, as well as on the system itself. Second, the training should focus on what the user needs to do, not what the system can do. Instead focus on the much small set of activities that user performs on a regular basis and ensure that users are truly expert in those. Another approach that is becoming more common is to use some form of computer based training (CBT)
Post-implementation activities
Post-implementation activities are the institutionalization of the use of the new system. The activities attempt to refreeze the organization after the successful transition to the new system.
System support
The system is officially turned over to the operations group. This group is responsible for the operation of the system. Online support is the most common form of on-demand training. This includes the documentation and help screens built into the system, as well as separate web sites that provide answers to frequently asked questions. The help desk is operated by level 1 staff who have very broad computers skills and are able to respond to a wide range of requires, from network problems and hardware to problems with commercial software problems with the business application software development in-house. The level 2 support staff members are people who know the application system well and can provide expert advice.
6
Chapter 13 Installation and Operations System maintenance
Process of refining the system to make sure it continues to meet business standards. Change requests that are likely to require a significant effort are typically handled in the same manner as system requests. Minor changes typically follow a “smaller” version of this same process. Change requests typically come from five sources. The most common source is problem reports. The second most common source of change requests is enhancement to the system from users. A third source of change requests is other system development projects. A fourth source of change requests are those that occur when underlying software or networks change. The fifth source of major change requests is senior management.
Project assessment
What was successful about the system and the project activities? Project assessment is not routine in most organizations, except for military organizations, which are accustomed to preparing after-action reports.
Project team review
Each project member prepares a short two to three page document that reports and analyzes his or her performance. The focus is on performance improvement, not penalties for mistakes made. Project initiations were actually recognized from the implemented system. The detailed analyses prepared for the expected business value. The objective is to compare the anticipated business value against the actual realized business value from the system. A formal system review also has important behavior implications for project initiation. No one wants to be the project sponsor or project manager for a project that goes radically over budget or fails to deliver promised benefits.
7
