Chapter 2 Theorizing Health: Major Theoretical Perspective in Health ...
Chapter 2 Theorizing Health: Major Theoretical Perspective in Health Sociology Introduction: What is Theory and Why Do We Need It?
Theories allow us to make sense of our world – they provide answers to the ‘how’ and ‘why’ questions of life – by showing the way certain facts are connected to one another.
Theoretical Perspectives In Health Sociology
A theory attempt to simplify reality and generalize its common and related features relevant to the topic at hand. While the sociological imagination is the care of a sociological approach, there are significant differences of opinion over how to put it into practice. One way to navigate through this theory maze is to start by grouping theories into the following theoretical perspectives or frameworks: o Structural functionalism o Marxism o Weberianism o Symbolic interactionism o Feminism o Post-structuralism/postmodernism o Human right and anti-racist approaches. Theoretical perspectives are a form of shorthand to group similar theories of society together. Any attempt to group theories in this way necessarily involves simplification by focusing on the similarities within the one perspective, at the expense of the difference between specific theories. One of the main distinctions between perspectives is the purpose or the questions they address. Another distinction between theoretical perspectives is the level of analysis in relation to the structureagency debate – a key debate in sociology over the extent to which human behaviour is determined by social structure. Sociological perspectives can be depicted broadly along a structure-agency continuum, with structualist approach at one end and agency approaches at the other. Structuralist approaches assume that social structures, such as the economic and political system, play a significant role in shaping individual and group behaviour – that is, basic societal structures are a determining factor in hoe you think, feel and act, as well as in your change of health wealth and happiness. Agency approaches, on the other hand, tends to focus on micro factors: they see society as the product of individuals acting socially or collectively to make the society in which they live. Functionalism and Marxism tend to focus more on societal structures, whereas Weberianism, symbolic interactionism, and postmodernism are more focused on the role of agency.
Key Features of Major Theoretical Perspectives Structural Functionalism
Emile Durkhiem, Talcott Parsons, and Robert Merton are the key theorists of structural functionalism. Functionalism focuses on large-scale social processes and is based on the assumption that a society is a system of integrated parts of which have certain needs (or functional prerequisites) that must be fulfilled for social order to be maintained. Functional is sometime referred to as ‘consensus theory’ because of its concentration of how social order is reached and maintained in society.
Functionalism has been particularly influential in organizational studies and public policy analysis, where it is often referred to as ‘ systems theory’. While such an approach can be useful for describing the basic operation of the health system, it neglects the influence of political, economic, and ideological interests, all of which make the health system less consensual, ordered or systematic that a functionalist perspective would depict. The functionalist analysis of health care has been primarily influenced by the work of Talcott Parson, who viewed the health of individuals as a necessary condition of a stable and ordered society. o He conceptualized illness as a form of deviance – that is, he viewed it as stopping people from performing various social roles, such as paid work and caring for children, which were essential to the functioning of society. o Sick role – that is, the social expectations that dictated how an individual sick person was meant to act and be treated. o To Parson, the sick role involves a series of rights and responsibilities. Biomedical model – the conventional approach to medicines in Western societies based on the diagnosis and explanation of illness as a malfunction of the body’s biological mechanisms. This approach underpins most health professions and health services, which focus on treating individuals, and generally ignores the social origins of illness and its prevention. According to Ivan Emke the sick role takes on a particular meaning in the ‘New Economy’, whereby individuals are held responsible for the onset of illness and at the same time are instructed to use as few medical service as possible.
Marxism
The term ‘Marxism” refers to a wide body of theory and political policies based on the writings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Marxism, sometimes referred to as ‘conflict theory’ or ‘materialism’, asserts that society is dominated by a fundamental conflict of interest between two social classes – the bourgeoisie (the capital class) and the proletariat (the working class) – that comprise the economic system of capitalism. Although Marxist analysis has a Structuralist focus, Marx argued that it is conscious human action the changes society. For Marx, human beings are products of their society yet are capable of transforming their social conditions. For others Marxism is an emotionally charged term because of its negative association with socialism and communism, both concepts that have been distorted by the media and by some conservative academics. To ad to the definitional confusion, some conflict theorists such as Randall Collins and Ralf Dahrendort, while acknowledging a debt to Marx, no longer consider themselves Marxists since they have incorporated other forms of social conflict, such as the engendered in various organizational settings and among a range of social movements. Marxist perspective on health and illness. o A primary focus of this perspective is on the impact of working and living conditions is capitalist society and how these contribute to illness, as well as on the role of medical profession. o Marxist perspective have highlighted that the exploitation of workers and pursuit of profit inherent in the structure of capitalism can create dangerous work environment and poor living conditions, resulting in higher mortality and morbidity rates among the working class. Navarro, Armstrong and Armstrong have been strong critics of the medical professions individualistic focus. Waitzkin calls ‘illness-generating social conditions’, the medical profession is viewed as performing an ideological function by masking the real cause of illness and thereby supporting the capitalist systems.
Theories allow us to make sense of our world – they provide answers to the ‘how’ and ‘why’ questions of life – by showing the way certain facts are connected to one another.
Theoretical Perspectives In Health Sociology
A theory attempt to simplify reality and generalize its common and related features relevant to the topic at hand. While the sociological imagination is the care of a sociological approach, there are significant differences of opinion over how to put it into practice. One way to navigate through this theory maze is to start by grouping theories into the following theoretical perspectives or frameworks: o Structural functionalism o Marxism o Weberianism o Symbolic interactionism o Feminism o Post-structuralism/postmodernism o Human right and anti-racist approaches. Theoretical perspectives are a form of shorthand to group similar theories of society together. Any attempt to group theories in this way necessarily involves simplification by focusing on the similarities within the one perspective, at the expense of the difference between specific theories. One of the main distinctions between perspectives is the purpose or the questions they address. Another distinction between theoretical perspectives is the level of analysis in relation to the structureagency debate – a key debate in sociology over the extent to which human behaviour is determined by social structure. Sociological perspectives can be depicted broadly along a structure-agency continuum, with structualist approach at one end and agency approaches at the other. Structuralist approaches assume that social structures, such as the economic and political system, play a significant role in shaping individual and group behaviour – that is, basic societal structures are a determining factor in hoe you think, feel and act, as well as in your change of health wealth and happiness. Agency approaches, on the other hand, tends to focus on micro factors: they see society as the product of individuals acting socially or collectively to make the society in which they live. Functionalism and Marxism tend to focus more on societal structures, whereas Weberianism, symbolic interactionism, and postmodernism are more focused on the role of agency.
Key Features of Major Theoretical Perspectives Structural Functionalism
Emile Durkhiem, Talcott Parsons, and Robert Merton are the key theorists of structural functionalism. Functionalism focuses on large-scale social processes and is based on the assumption that a society is a system of integrated parts of which have certain needs (or functional prerequisites) that must be fulfilled for social order to be maintained. Functional is sometime referred to as ‘consensus theory’ because of its concentration of how social order is reached and maintained in society.
Functionalism has been particularly influential in organizational studies and public policy analysis, where it is often referred to as ‘ systems theory’. While such an approach can be useful for describing the basic operation of the health system, it neglects the influence of political, economic, and ideological interests, all of which make the health system less consensual, ordered or systematic that a functionalist perspective would depict. The functionalist analysis of health care has been primarily influenced by the work of Talcott Parson, who viewed the health of individuals as a necessary condition of a stable and ordered society. o He conceptualized illness as a form of deviance – that is, he viewed it as stopping people from performing various social roles, such as paid work and caring for children, which were essential to the functioning of society. o Sick role – that is, the social expectations that dictated how an individual sick person was meant to act and be treated. o To Parson, the sick role involves a series of rights and responsibilities. Biomedical model – the conventional approach to medicines in Western societies based on the diagnosis and explanation of illness as a malfunction of the body’s biological mechanisms. This approach underpins most health professions and health services, which focus on treating individuals, and generally ignores the social origins of illness and its prevention. According to Ivan Emke the sick role takes on a particular meaning in the ‘New Economy’, whereby individuals are held responsible for the onset of illness and at the same time are instructed to use as few medical service as possible.
Marxism
The term ‘Marxism” refers to a wide body of theory and political policies based on the writings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Marxism, sometimes referred to as ‘conflict theory’ or ‘materialism’, asserts that society is dominated by a fundamental conflict of interest between two social classes – the bourgeoisie (the capital class) and the proletariat (the working class) – that comprise the economic system of capitalism. Although Marxist analysis has a Structuralist focus, Marx argued that it is conscious human action the changes society. For Marx, human beings are products of their society yet are capable of transforming their social conditions. For others Marxism is an emotionally charged term because of its negative association with socialism and communism, both concepts that have been distorted by the media and by some conservative academics. To ad to the definitional confusion, some conflict theorists such as Randall Collins and Ralf Dahrendort, while acknowledging a debt to Marx, no longer consider themselves Marxists since they have incorporated other forms of social conflict, such as the engendered in various organizational settings and among a range of social movements. Marxist perspective on health and illness. o A primary focus of this perspective is on the impact of working and living conditions is capitalist society and how these contribute to illness, as well as on the role of medical profession. o Marxist perspective have highlighted that the exploitation of workers and pursuit of profit inherent in the structure of capitalism can create dangerous work environment and poor living conditions, resulting in higher mortality and morbidity rates among the working class. Navarro, Armstrong and Armstrong have been strong critics of the medical professions individualistic focus. Waitzkin calls ‘illness-generating social conditions’, the medical profession is viewed as performing an ideological function by masking the real cause of illness and thereby supporting the capitalist systems.
