Coding, thematic analysis and transcription
March 18, 14
Coding, thematic analysis and transcription
What is coding? • Since coding is an important and sometimes most difficult phase of qualitative data analysis • Several examples will be provided to illustrate how coding is done. However, the coding methods shown are not the only way to go about coding qualitative data, as there are several methods. • Coding is the process of examining the raw qualitative data (which will be in the form of words, phrases, sentences or paragraphs) and assigning codes or labels. Strauss and Corbin (1990) identified the following types of coding: axial coding and open coding Open coding – you “sweep” through the data and mark (by circling or highlighting) selections of the text selected codes or labels. For example, you circle words or phrases describing violent criminal victimization (e.g., beaten, kicked, punched, stabbed, etc.) Axil Coding – Eventually, you have a large number of codes and you will find it necessary to sort them into some sort of order or into group sand this is called axial coding. Two common types of axial coding are: nonhierarchical or hierarchical • NonHierarchical: for example, in a study the researcher asked a group of adults how they take a break form their normal work. The responses are grouped as follows in a nonhierarchical manner (also called flat coding). • • • • • • • •
Codes/Labels Take a holiday, Go out for a walk Read a book Watch tv Take a nap Wander round the garden Workout at the gym Go for a drink with friends
Theme/Category adults taking a break from work
Axial coding: Hierarchical • Several codes group together as types or kinds of something. You need to put some of the codes or labels into a group of their own or make them subcodes i.e. a hierarchical arrangement of codes, like a tree, a branching arrangement of sub codes, ideally, codes in a tree relate to their parents by being ‘examples of…’, or ‘contexts for…’ or ‘causes of…’ or ‘settings for…’ and so on. • For example, a researcher was doing a study of friendship and asked a group of adults their views on the topic and the following in the classification.
THEME/Category Friendship Types
CODES/LABELS Close friend
Whenever you find a meaningful segment of text in a transcript, you assign a code or label to signify that particular segment. You continue this process until you have segmented all of you data and have completed the initial coding. Next you find relationships between the codes or labels and group them into themes or categories. What to look for when coding • When coding, you usually have some codes already in mind are also looking for other ideas that seem to arise out of the data. • You should ask the following questions about the data you are coding: What is going on? What are people ding? What is the person saying? What do theme actions are statements take for granted? (Don’t take things at face value – saying I want to jump of a bridge doesn’t mean you are suicidal but maybe bored) How do structure and context serve to support, maintain, impede or change these actions and statements? What can be coded? • Behaviors Specific act • Events short once in a life time events or things people have done • Activities these are of a longer duration, involve other people within a particular setting • Strategies practice or tactics • States general conditions experienced by people or found in organizations • Meanings • Participation • Relationship • Conditions • Consequences • Settings • Reflexive Example #1: coding data
A researcher interviewed several staff in an office and asked this question: what specific problems need immediate action on your organization? Axial Coding: Categories Management Physical Environment Employee development
Data there is leadership problems We need a suggestion box We need better cleaning services for office
Summary: Coding • Coding is the process of examining the raw qualitative data which will in the form of words, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs) and assigning CODES or labels. • Open coding you sweep through the data and mark (be circling or highlighting) sections of the text selected codes or labels. • Eventually, you have a large number of codes and you will find it necessary to sort them into some sort of order or into groups and this is called axial coding. • The way codes are developed and the timing of this process will depend on whether you research project and you approach is inductive or deductive • Most typically, when coding, researchers have some codes already in mind and are also looking for other ideas that seem to arise out of the data.
Thematic Analysis Thematic Analysis • Thematic analysis is a method of identifying, analyzing and reporting patterns (themes) within data. In minimally organizes and describes you data set in (rich) detail. • A theme captures something important about the data in relation to the research question, and represents some level of patterned response or meaning within the data set AND whether it captures something important in relation to the overall research question.
Prevalence of themes – there are various ‘conventions’ for representing prevalence in thematic analysis that does not provide a quantified measure
For instance: ‘the majority of participants’, ‘many participants’, or ‘a number of participants’ Such descriptors work rhetorically to suggest a theme really existed in the data, and to convince us they are reporting truthfully about the data. A DETAILED ACCOUNT OF ONE PARTICULAR ASPECT – an alternative use of thematic analysis is to provide a more detailed and nuances account of one particular theme, or group of themes, within the data this might relate to a specific question or area of interest within the data. AN INDUCTIVE APPROACH (SIMILAR TO GROUNDED THEORY) – an inductive approach means that themes identified are strongly linked to the data themselves (such as, this for of thematic analysis bears some similarity to grounded theory) In this approach, if the data have been collected specifically for the research (eg, via interview or focus group), the themes identified may bear little relation to the specific questions that wee asked of the participants They would also not be driven be researchers theoretical interest in the area or topic. Indicative analysis is therefore a process of coding the data without trying to fit it into a preexisting frame, or the researcher’s analytic preconceptions. Phases of thematic analysis: 1. Familiarizing yourself with data = transcribing data, noted down initial ideas, intra/inter coder reliability 2. Generating initial codes = coding interesting features of the data is a systematic manner across the entire data set (collecting relevant data for each code) 3. Searching for themes = collecting codes into potential themes, gathering all data relevant to each potential theme 4. Reviewing themes = checking of the themes work in relation to the codes. 5. Defining and naming themes = review the overall story the analysis tells 6. Producing the report = final analysis of extracts, relating back to the analysis to the research questions and literature. Tell a story – utilize select quotes Look at qualitative publications – many strategies for integrating queots into journal articles
Coding, thematic analysis and transcription
What is coding? • Since coding is an important and sometimes most difficult phase of qualitative data analysis • Several examples will be provided to illustrate how coding is done. However, the coding methods shown are not the only way to go about coding qualitative data, as there are several methods. • Coding is the process of examining the raw qualitative data (which will be in the form of words, phrases, sentences or paragraphs) and assigning codes or labels. Strauss and Corbin (1990) identified the following types of coding: axial coding and open coding Open coding – you “sweep” through the data and mark (by circling or highlighting) selections of the text selected codes or labels. For example, you circle words or phrases describing violent criminal victimization (e.g., beaten, kicked, punched, stabbed, etc.) Axil Coding – Eventually, you have a large number of codes and you will find it necessary to sort them into some sort of order or into group sand this is called axial coding. Two common types of axial coding are: nonhierarchical or hierarchical • NonHierarchical: for example, in a study the researcher asked a group of adults how they take a break form their normal work. The responses are grouped as follows in a nonhierarchical manner (also called flat coding). • • • • • • • •
Codes/Labels Take a holiday, Go out for a walk Read a book Watch tv Take a nap Wander round the garden Workout at the gym Go for a drink with friends
Theme/Category adults taking a break from work
Axial coding: Hierarchical • Several codes group together as types or kinds of something. You need to put some of the codes or labels into a group of their own or make them subcodes i.e. a hierarchical arrangement of codes, like a tree, a branching arrangement of sub codes, ideally, codes in a tree relate to their parents by being ‘examples of…’, or ‘contexts for…’ or ‘causes of…’ or ‘settings for…’ and so on. • For example, a researcher was doing a study of friendship and asked a group of adults their views on the topic and the following in the classification.
THEME/Category Friendship Types
CODES/LABELS Close friend
Whenever you find a meaningful segment of text in a transcript, you assign a code or label to signify that particular segment. You continue this process until you have segmented all of you data and have completed the initial coding. Next you find relationships between the codes or labels and group them into themes or categories. What to look for when coding • When coding, you usually have some codes already in mind are also looking for other ideas that seem to arise out of the data. • You should ask the following questions about the data you are coding: What is going on? What are people ding? What is the person saying? What do theme actions are statements take for granted? (Don’t take things at face value – saying I want to jump of a bridge doesn’t mean you are suicidal but maybe bored) How do structure and context serve to support, maintain, impede or change these actions and statements? What can be coded? • Behaviors Specific act • Events short once in a life time events or things people have done • Activities these are of a longer duration, involve other people within a particular setting • Strategies practice or tactics • States general conditions experienced by people or found in organizations • Meanings • Participation • Relationship • Conditions • Consequences • Settings • Reflexive Example #1: coding data
A researcher interviewed several staff in an office and asked this question: what specific problems need immediate action on your organization? Axial Coding: Categories Management Physical Environment Employee development
Data there is leadership problems We need a suggestion box We need better cleaning services for office
Summary: Coding • Coding is the process of examining the raw qualitative data which will in the form of words, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs) and assigning CODES or labels. • Open coding you sweep through the data and mark (be circling or highlighting) sections of the text selected codes or labels. • Eventually, you have a large number of codes and you will find it necessary to sort them into some sort of order or into groups and this is called axial coding. • The way codes are developed and the timing of this process will depend on whether you research project and you approach is inductive or deductive • Most typically, when coding, researchers have some codes already in mind and are also looking for other ideas that seem to arise out of the data.
Thematic Analysis Thematic Analysis • Thematic analysis is a method of identifying, analyzing and reporting patterns (themes) within data. In minimally organizes and describes you data set in (rich) detail. • A theme captures something important about the data in relation to the research question, and represents some level of patterned response or meaning within the data set AND whether it captures something important in relation to the overall research question.
Prevalence of themes – there are various ‘conventions’ for representing prevalence in thematic analysis that does not provide a quantified measure
For instance: ‘the majority of participants’, ‘many participants’, or ‘a number of participants’ Such descriptors work rhetorically to suggest a theme really existed in the data, and to convince us they are reporting truthfully about the data. A DETAILED ACCOUNT OF ONE PARTICULAR ASPECT – an alternative use of thematic analysis is to provide a more detailed and nuances account of one particular theme, or group of themes, within the data this might relate to a specific question or area of interest within the data. AN INDUCTIVE APPROACH (SIMILAR TO GROUNDED THEORY) – an inductive approach means that themes identified are strongly linked to the data themselves (such as, this for of thematic analysis bears some similarity to grounded theory) In this approach, if the data have been collected specifically for the research (eg, via interview or focus group), the themes identified may bear little relation to the specific questions that wee asked of the participants They would also not be driven be researchers theoretical interest in the area or topic. Indicative analysis is therefore a process of coding the data without trying to fit it into a preexisting frame, or the researcher’s analytic preconceptions. Phases of thematic analysis: 1. Familiarizing yourself with data = transcribing data, noted down initial ideas, intra/inter coder reliability 2. Generating initial codes = coding interesting features of the data is a systematic manner across the entire data set (collecting relevant data for each code) 3. Searching for themes = collecting codes into potential themes, gathering all data relevant to each potential theme 4. Reviewing themes = checking of the themes work in relation to the codes. 5. Defining and naming themes = review the overall story the analysis tells 6. Producing the report = final analysis of extracts, relating back to the analysis to the research questions and literature. Tell a story – utilize select quotes Look at qualitative publications – many strategies for integrating queots into journal articles
