Essay Question:
Essay Question:
1
Describe the various types of research designs and discuss the strengths and weaknesses of each design. Which type of research design is most commonly used by researchers, and which type of research design is the least reliable and why? If you were conducting research which design would you use and why?
Research in any field begins with curiosity. Yet method texts often read as primers on how to kill curiosity by subjecting it to formula. As a social process, all research involves a good deal of guesswork, fumbling about, looking around, following rather loosely formulated hunches, filling in empty spaces and, generally, figuring out ways to usefully categorize and explain what it is that one has learned ( Stebbins, 2001). Research design is a plan that deals with entire research project which includes some major quires like the aims of study, what information to seek, how the researcher can collect data and how to process and interpret the data and so forth. According to Keith F Punch, “…Research design in general was described as the overall plan for a piece of research, including four main ideas: the strategy, the conceptual framework, the question of who or what will be studied, and the tools to be used for collecting and analyzing empirical materials. Design situates the researcher in the empirical world. When research questions are pre-specified, the design sits between the research questions and the data, and it shows how the research questions will be connected to the data. When research questions are developed as the study unfolds, the design still needs to connect the question to the data and to fit in with both” (1998, pp149150). Therefore, creating an effective research design, anticipating possible complexities and challenges in the field, is an exceedingly functional task in understanding any type of study. Although, the choice of methods should reflects both one's research topic and the overall research strategy as one's methodology shapes which methods are used and how each method is used (Silverman, 2005). Thus, I can argue that different types of methodology need to be required for different investigation. However, the logic of adopting certain methodological approach depends on the nature and purpose of the study. In addition, time, space and cost factors are also considered in adopting of any particular approach. 2
There are different types of research which can be classified by the following ways•
Quantitative research
•
Qualitative research
•
Mixed method research.
Quantitative research: Quantitative research is tries to quantify the problem and understand how prevalent it is by looking for projectable results to a larger population. Quantitative research uses the deductive or confirmatory or “top down” scientific method; it is used primarily for description, explanation, and prediction. It is based on quantitative data, in particular on the analysis of variables. Trochim and Land (1982, p.1) defined quantitative research design as the glue that holds the research project together. A design is used to structure the research, to show how all of the major parts of the research project—the samples or groups, measures, treatments or programs, and methods of assignment—work together to try to address the central research questions. Bryman (2004) argues that quantitative research strategy is associated with an epistemological position of ‘positivism’ and an ontological position of ‘objectivism’. From this understanding we may identify the following strengths and weaknesses of this research-
Strengths of quantitative research: •
The researcher may look at relationship between variables, and then allow one to more variables credibly to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
•
Provides precise, quantitative, numerical data.
•
Data analysis is relatively less time consuming (using statistical software
•
It is useful for studying large numbers of people.
•
Data collection using some quantitative methods is relatively quick (e.g., survey method by telephone interviews) in comparison to qualitative research with in-depth interview or case study and so on.
Weaknesses of quantitative research:
3
•
Quantitative research does not study things in a natural setting or discuss the meaning things have for different people as qualitative research does
•
Experimental research involves artificiality, and the researcher tends to ignore many behaviors that can be important because they are not thought to be related to the variable of interest.
•
It ignores the direct observation of the phenomena.
Qualitative research Bryman (2004) also argues that qualitative research strategy is associated with an epistemological consideration of ‘interpretivism’ and an ontological concern with ‘constuctionism’. Mason states: Qualitative research is interpretive, which means that it is concerned with how the social world is interpreted, understood, experienced and produced. Qualitative research aims to produce rounded understandings on the basis of rich, contextual and detailed data. There is more emphasis on ‘holistic’ forms of analysis and explanation, in this sense, than on charting surface patterns, trends and correlations (Mason, 1996, p.4). In the context of the above ideas, it could be argued that quantitative research methods tend to be used in survey research with a positivistic framework, and they seek to reveal causal relationships. On the other hand, qualitative research is usually described as allowing a detailed exploration of a topic of interest in which information is collected by a researcher through case studies, ethnographic work, interviews, and so on.
Strengths of qualitative research: •
Qualitative research can feel authentic because they directly deal with participants’ own views or observations.
•
Qualitative research methods are concerned with opinions, feelings and experiences, and describe the social phenomena with the interpretation of particular research participants’.
•
It can also provide an opportunity to represent a feminist sensitivity (Bryman, 2004, p.287) such as domestic violence or gender inequality. 4
•
It is useful to understand the complex phenomena such as ethnic racial problems or immigrant people problems in Canada etc.
Weaknesses of qualitative research: •
Qualitative research methods objectively verifiable such as, focus group discussion, ethnography etc.
•
It is very time consuming and can last for months or even years such as ethnographical study.
•
Sometimes qualitative researchers interpret their data according to his or her observation which may likely to reflect with some biasness.
•
Data analysis is often time consuming and so on.
Mixed method research: For decades, scholars in the social sciences have made use of mixed method research that is, combining both qualitative and quantitative data in a single study. The mixing of research methods has been given many names including multiple methods, blended research, multi-method, triangulated studies, and mixed research. In business, mixed methods and multi-methods research are commonly used as in the same labels. However, some scholars argued that multi method research involves multiple types of qualitative inquiry (e.g. interviews and observations) or multiple types of quantitative inquiry (e.g. surveys and experiments) and mixed methods which involve the mixing of the two types of data such as qualitative and quantitative data in a single study ( Johnson, Onwuegbuzie, & Turner, 2007) Mixed methods research is the type of research in which are searcher or team of researchers combines elements of qualitative and quantitative research approaches (e.g., use of qualitative and quantitative viewpoints, data collection, analysis, inference techniques) for the broad purpose of breadth and depth of understanding and corroboration (Johnson et al., 2007, pp. 123) Furthermore, we can conduct the above research by using the following methods, such as:
Survey: 5
A survey can be thought to consist of several interconnected steps which include: defining the objectives, selecting a survey frame, determining the sample design, designing the questionnaire, collecting and processing the data, analysing and disseminating the data and documenting the survey. There are two main forms of the survey, such as, interview and questionnaire. Therefore, the advantages and disadvantages of survey methods depend on how we collect our data for the particular research. Survey method Interview (structured/close-ended) strengths
Higher response rate
weaknesses
Expensive and time consuming
Questionnaire
strengths
Easy and cost efficient
Able to collect data from a large number of respondents in a short period of time
weaknesses People may read differently into each question and therefore reply based on their own interpretation of the question, therefore, there is a level of subjectivity that is not acknowledged Structured questions may have a lower validity rate than other question types due to inadequate to understand some forms of information.
Observation: Observation is a selective way of watching and listening to an interaction or phenomenon as its takes place. This has been described as follows: Observation is a very effective way of finding out what people do in particular contexts, the routines and interactional patterns of their everyday lives (Darlington and Scott, 2002, p.74). Strengths: •
Observation can sometimes obtain more reliable information about certain things - for example, how people actually behave (although it may not find out the reasons for why they behave in a particular way). 6
•
Less generalizable to greater population
•
It gives more or detailed information about the particular research.
Weaknesses: •
The researcher may miss something while they are watching and taking notes
•
The researcher may make judgements of make value statements or misunderstand what has been observed
Experiments: The experimental method is a scientific and systematic research method in which the researcher manipulates one or more variables, and controls and measures any change in other variables. Strengths: •
Researcher has control and ability to change experiment if the answers are inconclusive, this allows for less time wasting in experiments.
•
It has drawn a conclusion on the basis of cause and effect relationship.
Weaknesses: •
Researcher manipulates values so they may not be making a completely objective experiment.
•
People can be influenced by what they see around them and may give answers that they think the researcher wants to hear rather than how they think and feel on a subject.
Existing/secondary sources: The term secondary analysis refers to a variety of research techniques that make use of previously collected and publicly accessible information and data (Witt and Hermiston, 2010, p. 32). Strengths: •
It allows research on subjects to which the researcher does not have physical access. 7
•
It is time convenient and cost effective method.
•
It can be use for longitudinal analysis such as historical research.
•
It can deal with large sample study.
Weaknesses: •
Many documents provide incomplete account to the researcher who has had no prior experience with or knowledge of the events or behavior discussed. Therefore, researcher may play a judgemental role for this particular field.
•
Many documents used in research were not originally intended for research purposes which are ethically erroneous for the subject.
It could be argued that research in the social sciences focuses particularly on describing, understanding, and interpreting social phenomena and processes. It is normally quite difficult to predict and explain social phenomena very precisely; therefore, social researchers depend on different methodological approaches as compared with natural scientists. The choice of methods should reflect both one's research topic and the overall research strategy, as one's methodology shapes which methods are selected and how each of these is used (Silverman, 2005). Indeed, different types of methodology are required for different investigations, but the logic of adopting certain methodological approaches depends on the nature and purpose of the study and what type of research we may want to conduct such as qualitative, quantitative or mixed. In addition, the sampling processes also determine what type of research need to imply for this particular research. For example, quantitative research deals with large sample and more likely to use probability sampling method. On the other hand, qualitative research usually involves with small sampling sizes with non-probability sampling approaches. From this above discussion, I can say that quantitative research commonly used in survey and experimental methods and qualitative research involves with in-depth interview, case study methods. While arguing the reliability of the research, I would say that each method has its own strengths and weaknesses, especially, when considered in relation to a particular problem. However, researcher needs to consider the issue of validity and 8
reliability when they select a framework for the collection and analysis of data. It is argued that when data cannot quantify by using statistical methods is considered as the least scientific method of validity.
Similarly, when qualitative researchers
eliminate the research bias, and increase the researcher’s truthfulness of a proposition about some social phenomenon is consider more reliable. This means that the validity and reliability of a study depend on the criterion of the research, and how researcher clarifies their position for the relevant research. If I would conduct a research, first of all, I may identify the research problems or the area of interest. Afterwards, I would review the existing literature for this particular research topic. Reviewing prior research can also help me with creating research questions, what population to explore, and laying the theoretical groundwork for my study. In addition, it helps me to select the particular research approach (such as quantitative or qualitative) and most appropriate methods of gathering information (like survey, interview or observation) for the relevant research topic. References: Bryman, A. (2004) Social research methods. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Johnson, R. B., Onwuegbuzie, A. J., & Turner, L. A. (2007). Toward a definition of mixed methods research. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 1(2), pp.112– 133. Mason, J. (1996) Qualitative researching. London: Sage Publications. Punch, Keith F. (1998) Introduction to Social Research: Quantitative & Qualitative Approaches. London: Sage Publications. Silverman, David. (2005) Doing qualitative research: a practical handbook. London: Sage publication. Stebbins, Robert. A. (2001) Exploratory research in the social sciences (Qualitative Research Methods Series 48).Sage Publication, Inc: United Kingdom. Trochim, W. M. K., & Land, D. A. (1982). Designing designs for research. The Researcher, 1, pp.1–6.
9
Witt, Jon. And Hermiston, Alana. J. (2010) SOC: A matter of perspective. McGrawHill Ryerson: New York.
10
1
Describe the various types of research designs and discuss the strengths and weaknesses of each design. Which type of research design is most commonly used by researchers, and which type of research design is the least reliable and why? If you were conducting research which design would you use and why?
Research in any field begins with curiosity. Yet method texts often read as primers on how to kill curiosity by subjecting it to formula. As a social process, all research involves a good deal of guesswork, fumbling about, looking around, following rather loosely formulated hunches, filling in empty spaces and, generally, figuring out ways to usefully categorize and explain what it is that one has learned ( Stebbins, 2001). Research design is a plan that deals with entire research project which includes some major quires like the aims of study, what information to seek, how the researcher can collect data and how to process and interpret the data and so forth. According to Keith F Punch, “…Research design in general was described as the overall plan for a piece of research, including four main ideas: the strategy, the conceptual framework, the question of who or what will be studied, and the tools to be used for collecting and analyzing empirical materials. Design situates the researcher in the empirical world. When research questions are pre-specified, the design sits between the research questions and the data, and it shows how the research questions will be connected to the data. When research questions are developed as the study unfolds, the design still needs to connect the question to the data and to fit in with both” (1998, pp149150). Therefore, creating an effective research design, anticipating possible complexities and challenges in the field, is an exceedingly functional task in understanding any type of study. Although, the choice of methods should reflects both one's research topic and the overall research strategy as one's methodology shapes which methods are used and how each method is used (Silverman, 2005). Thus, I can argue that different types of methodology need to be required for different investigation. However, the logic of adopting certain methodological approach depends on the nature and purpose of the study. In addition, time, space and cost factors are also considered in adopting of any particular approach. 2
There are different types of research which can be classified by the following ways•
Quantitative research
•
Qualitative research
•
Mixed method research.
Quantitative research: Quantitative research is tries to quantify the problem and understand how prevalent it is by looking for projectable results to a larger population. Quantitative research uses the deductive or confirmatory or “top down” scientific method; it is used primarily for description, explanation, and prediction. It is based on quantitative data, in particular on the analysis of variables. Trochim and Land (1982, p.1) defined quantitative research design as the glue that holds the research project together. A design is used to structure the research, to show how all of the major parts of the research project—the samples or groups, measures, treatments or programs, and methods of assignment—work together to try to address the central research questions. Bryman (2004) argues that quantitative research strategy is associated with an epistemological position of ‘positivism’ and an ontological position of ‘objectivism’. From this understanding we may identify the following strengths and weaknesses of this research-
Strengths of quantitative research: •
The researcher may look at relationship between variables, and then allow one to more variables credibly to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
•
Provides precise, quantitative, numerical data.
•
Data analysis is relatively less time consuming (using statistical software
•
It is useful for studying large numbers of people.
•
Data collection using some quantitative methods is relatively quick (e.g., survey method by telephone interviews) in comparison to qualitative research with in-depth interview or case study and so on.
Weaknesses of quantitative research:
3
•
Quantitative research does not study things in a natural setting or discuss the meaning things have for different people as qualitative research does
•
Experimental research involves artificiality, and the researcher tends to ignore many behaviors that can be important because they are not thought to be related to the variable of interest.
•
It ignores the direct observation of the phenomena.
Qualitative research Bryman (2004) also argues that qualitative research strategy is associated with an epistemological consideration of ‘interpretivism’ and an ontological concern with ‘constuctionism’. Mason states: Qualitative research is interpretive, which means that it is concerned with how the social world is interpreted, understood, experienced and produced. Qualitative research aims to produce rounded understandings on the basis of rich, contextual and detailed data. There is more emphasis on ‘holistic’ forms of analysis and explanation, in this sense, than on charting surface patterns, trends and correlations (Mason, 1996, p.4). In the context of the above ideas, it could be argued that quantitative research methods tend to be used in survey research with a positivistic framework, and they seek to reveal causal relationships. On the other hand, qualitative research is usually described as allowing a detailed exploration of a topic of interest in which information is collected by a researcher through case studies, ethnographic work, interviews, and so on.
Strengths of qualitative research: •
Qualitative research can feel authentic because they directly deal with participants’ own views or observations.
•
Qualitative research methods are concerned with opinions, feelings and experiences, and describe the social phenomena with the interpretation of particular research participants’.
•
It can also provide an opportunity to represent a feminist sensitivity (Bryman, 2004, p.287) such as domestic violence or gender inequality. 4
•
It is useful to understand the complex phenomena such as ethnic racial problems or immigrant people problems in Canada etc.
Weaknesses of qualitative research: •
Qualitative research methods objectively verifiable such as, focus group discussion, ethnography etc.
•
It is very time consuming and can last for months or even years such as ethnographical study.
•
Sometimes qualitative researchers interpret their data according to his or her observation which may likely to reflect with some biasness.
•
Data analysis is often time consuming and so on.
Mixed method research: For decades, scholars in the social sciences have made use of mixed method research that is, combining both qualitative and quantitative data in a single study. The mixing of research methods has been given many names including multiple methods, blended research, multi-method, triangulated studies, and mixed research. In business, mixed methods and multi-methods research are commonly used as in the same labels. However, some scholars argued that multi method research involves multiple types of qualitative inquiry (e.g. interviews and observations) or multiple types of quantitative inquiry (e.g. surveys and experiments) and mixed methods which involve the mixing of the two types of data such as qualitative and quantitative data in a single study ( Johnson, Onwuegbuzie, & Turner, 2007) Mixed methods research is the type of research in which are searcher or team of researchers combines elements of qualitative and quantitative research approaches (e.g., use of qualitative and quantitative viewpoints, data collection, analysis, inference techniques) for the broad purpose of breadth and depth of understanding and corroboration (Johnson et al., 2007, pp. 123) Furthermore, we can conduct the above research by using the following methods, such as:
Survey: 5
A survey can be thought to consist of several interconnected steps which include: defining the objectives, selecting a survey frame, determining the sample design, designing the questionnaire, collecting and processing the data, analysing and disseminating the data and documenting the survey. There are two main forms of the survey, such as, interview and questionnaire. Therefore, the advantages and disadvantages of survey methods depend on how we collect our data for the particular research. Survey method Interview (structured/close-ended) strengths
Higher response rate
weaknesses
Expensive and time consuming
Questionnaire
strengths
Easy and cost efficient
Able to collect data from a large number of respondents in a short period of time
weaknesses People may read differently into each question and therefore reply based on their own interpretation of the question, therefore, there is a level of subjectivity that is not acknowledged Structured questions may have a lower validity rate than other question types due to inadequate to understand some forms of information.
Observation: Observation is a selective way of watching and listening to an interaction or phenomenon as its takes place. This has been described as follows: Observation is a very effective way of finding out what people do in particular contexts, the routines and interactional patterns of their everyday lives (Darlington and Scott, 2002, p.74). Strengths: •
Observation can sometimes obtain more reliable information about certain things - for example, how people actually behave (although it may not find out the reasons for why they behave in a particular way). 6
•
Less generalizable to greater population
•
It gives more or detailed information about the particular research.
Weaknesses: •
The researcher may miss something while they are watching and taking notes
•
The researcher may make judgements of make value statements or misunderstand what has been observed
Experiments: The experimental method is a scientific and systematic research method in which the researcher manipulates one or more variables, and controls and measures any change in other variables. Strengths: •
Researcher has control and ability to change experiment if the answers are inconclusive, this allows for less time wasting in experiments.
•
It has drawn a conclusion on the basis of cause and effect relationship.
Weaknesses: •
Researcher manipulates values so they may not be making a completely objective experiment.
•
People can be influenced by what they see around them and may give answers that they think the researcher wants to hear rather than how they think and feel on a subject.
Existing/secondary sources: The term secondary analysis refers to a variety of research techniques that make use of previously collected and publicly accessible information and data (Witt and Hermiston, 2010, p. 32). Strengths: •
It allows research on subjects to which the researcher does not have physical access. 7
•
It is time convenient and cost effective method.
•
It can be use for longitudinal analysis such as historical research.
•
It can deal with large sample study.
Weaknesses: •
Many documents provide incomplete account to the researcher who has had no prior experience with or knowledge of the events or behavior discussed. Therefore, researcher may play a judgemental role for this particular field.
•
Many documents used in research were not originally intended for research purposes which are ethically erroneous for the subject.
It could be argued that research in the social sciences focuses particularly on describing, understanding, and interpreting social phenomena and processes. It is normally quite difficult to predict and explain social phenomena very precisely; therefore, social researchers depend on different methodological approaches as compared with natural scientists. The choice of methods should reflect both one's research topic and the overall research strategy, as one's methodology shapes which methods are selected and how each of these is used (Silverman, 2005). Indeed, different types of methodology are required for different investigations, but the logic of adopting certain methodological approaches depends on the nature and purpose of the study and what type of research we may want to conduct such as qualitative, quantitative or mixed. In addition, the sampling processes also determine what type of research need to imply for this particular research. For example, quantitative research deals with large sample and more likely to use probability sampling method. On the other hand, qualitative research usually involves with small sampling sizes with non-probability sampling approaches. From this above discussion, I can say that quantitative research commonly used in survey and experimental methods and qualitative research involves with in-depth interview, case study methods. While arguing the reliability of the research, I would say that each method has its own strengths and weaknesses, especially, when considered in relation to a particular problem. However, researcher needs to consider the issue of validity and 8
reliability when they select a framework for the collection and analysis of data. It is argued that when data cannot quantify by using statistical methods is considered as the least scientific method of validity.
Similarly, when qualitative researchers
eliminate the research bias, and increase the researcher’s truthfulness of a proposition about some social phenomenon is consider more reliable. This means that the validity and reliability of a study depend on the criterion of the research, and how researcher clarifies their position for the relevant research. If I would conduct a research, first of all, I may identify the research problems or the area of interest. Afterwards, I would review the existing literature for this particular research topic. Reviewing prior research can also help me with creating research questions, what population to explore, and laying the theoretical groundwork for my study. In addition, it helps me to select the particular research approach (such as quantitative or qualitative) and most appropriate methods of gathering information (like survey, interview or observation) for the relevant research topic. References: Bryman, A. (2004) Social research methods. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Johnson, R. B., Onwuegbuzie, A. J., & Turner, L. A. (2007). Toward a definition of mixed methods research. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 1(2), pp.112– 133. Mason, J. (1996) Qualitative researching. London: Sage Publications. Punch, Keith F. (1998) Introduction to Social Research: Quantitative & Qualitative Approaches. London: Sage Publications. Silverman, David. (2005) Doing qualitative research: a practical handbook. London: Sage publication. Stebbins, Robert. A. (2001) Exploratory research in the social sciences (Qualitative Research Methods Series 48).Sage Publication, Inc: United Kingdom. Trochim, W. M. K., & Land, D. A. (1982). Designing designs for research. The Researcher, 1, pp.1–6.
9
Witt, Jon. And Hermiston, Alana. J. (2010) SOC: A matter of perspective. McGrawHill Ryerson: New York.
10
