Exercise 1
Exercise 1.1 4. As good almost kill a man as kill a good book (PREMISE): who kills a man kills a reasonable creature, God’s image, but he who destroys a good book kills reason itself. (CONCLUSION) -John Milton, Areopagitica This (4) is an argument. It presents a conclusion, that a being who destroys a "good book" destroys knowledge, or "reason" itself. The premise leading up to this conclusion is that "As good almost kill a man as kill a good book", contrasting the two plausible "murders". 5. To safeguard one’s happiness is a duty (CONCLUSION), at least indirectly; for discontent with one’s condition amidst the press of worries and unsatisfied wants may easily become a great temptation to the transgression of duties.(PREMISE) -Immanuel Kant, The Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysics of Ethics This (5) is an argument. The conclusion is that, it is one's duty to safeguard their own happiness. The premise for this conclusion is that not safeguarding one's happiness could result is such a level of discontentment with one's life, that the person in question would not be able to carry out their daily duties, or work hard towards certain goals because they will simply lack the motivation to do so, as a result of a kind of sadness. 6. I had a farm in Africa, at the foot of the Ngong Hills. The Equator runs across these highlands, a hundred miles to the North, and the farm lay at an altitude of over six thousand feet. -Isak Dinesen, Out of Africa This (6) is an explanation, as it does not carry any premises, nor does it carry with it any conclusion that is attempting to convince the reader of any particular "fact", or notion. this sentence is simply relaying a story. 7. Good sense is of all things in the world the most equally distributed,(CONCLUSION) for everybody thinks himself so abundantly provided with it, that even those most difficult to please in all other matters do not commonly desire more of it than they already possess(PREMISES). -Rene Descartes, A Discourse on Method This (7) is an argument. The conclusion is that common sense in the world is equally distributed, while the premise is that every human believes that they have been born with the best of everything, thus they do not ask or desire for any more than that. 8. No man will take counsel, but every man will take money:(PREMISES) therefore money is better than counsel. (CONCLUSION)-Jonathan Swift This (8) is an argument. The conclusion is that money is better than counsel, while the premises argue that this notion is true because "no man will take cousel, but every man will take money".
9. The fence around a cemetery is foolish (CONCLUSION), for those inside can’t get out and those outside don’t want to get in.(PREMISES) -Arthur Brisbane, The Book of Today This (9) is an argument. The premises argue that those who are outside a cemetery do not want to get inside of it, while those who are dead, and thereby dwell inside of it can not get out. This leads to the conclusion that building fences around cemeteries is foolish. 10. During the school period the student has been mentally bending over his desk; at the University he should stand up and look around. (PREMISES) For this reason it is fatal if the first year at the University be frittered away in going over the old work in the old spirit. (CONCLUSION) -A.N. Whitehead, The Aims of Education This (10) is an argument. The premises that the student has been leaning over their work, straining their neck, similar to a hermit. this leads to the conclusion that the first year of University should not be spent living like a Hermit, but rather gaining both knowledge and experience. 11. If we take eternity to mean not infinite temporal duration but timelessness, then eternal life belongs to those who live in the present. -Ludwig Wittgenstein, Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus This (11) is just a statement, as it does not make a significant attempt to convince the reader of any notion, but it also does not attempt to explain anything in particular. 12. Since happiness consists in peace of mind (PREMISE), and since durable peace of mind depends on the confidence we have in the future, and since that confidence is based on the science we should have of the nature of God and the soul, it follows that science is necessary for true happiness. (CONCLUSION) -Gottfried Leibniz, Preface to the General Science This(12) is an argument. the conclusion is that science is necessary for true happiness. the premises argue that peace of mind comes from confidence in the future, with comes from an almost faith-like science, thus deeming science necessary for true happiness. 13. He that accepts protection, stipulates obedience. We have always protected the Americans(PREMISES); we may therefore subject them to government(CONCLUSION). -Samuel Johnson, Address to the Electors of Great Britain This (13) is an argument. The premises argue that a being must be obedient and indebted to their protector. The conclusion states that due to the protection provided for the entity in question, the provider now has sovereignty over that entity. 14. Spriggs, . . . having fallen into a fire when drunk, had one eye burnt out, one cheek burnt through, and one arm nearly burnt off, and, therefore, in regard to personal appearance was not the most prepossessing of men. -Anthony Trollope, The Warden
This (14) is an explanation, it is explaining what happened as a direct result of an event. 15. A tiger has a natural right to eat a man, but if he may eat one man he may eat another, (PREMISES) so that a tiger has a right of property in all men, as potential tiger-meat. (CONCLUSION) -Thomas Henry Huxley, Natural Rights and Political Rights This (15) is an argument. The premises argue that Tigers have the natural right to consume Human beings, that if they consume one they may consumer multiple human beings. The sentence concludes that as a result, Tigers own all human beings as possible meals. 16. Poetry is finer and more philosophical than history,(CONCLUSION) for poetry expresses the universal and history only the particular.(PREMISES) -Aristotle, Poetics This (16) is an argument. The premise argues that poetry expresses a broad range of topics, while history is more specific. this leads to the conclusion that Poetry is finer that history. 17. The Roman Empire crumbled to dust because it lacked the spirit of liberalism and free enterprise. -Ludwig von Mises, Human Action, A Treatise on Economics This (17) is an explanation, as to why a certain factual event took place. 18. . . . since there are more people on the earth than there are hairs on any one person’s head,(PREMISES) I know that there must be at least two people with the same number of hairs (CONCLUSION) . . . . -F.P. Ramsey, The Foundations of Mathematics This (18) is an argument. the premises arguing that there are more people than hairs, thereby there must be a minimum of two people with the same amount of hair. 19. Venus and Mercury must revolve around the sun, (CONCLUSION) because of their never moving far away from it, and because of their being seen now beyond it and now on this side of it (PREMISES). . . . -Galileo Galilei, “Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World System” This (19) is an argument. the premises argue that Venus and Mercury never move far from the sun, and must, therefore, revolve around it. 20. All censorships exist to prevent anyone from challenging current conceptions and existing institutions. All progress is initiated by challenging current conceptions, and executed by supplanting existing institutions. Consequently the first condition of progress is the removal of censorships. There is the whole case against censorships in a nutshell. This (20) is an explanation, telling that there is a whole case against censorship.
Exercise 1.2 2. Going to the store at this hour is pointless. Since it is now well past 9 o’clock, the store will be closed. The store always closes at 9 o’clock. 1. Going to the store at this hour is pointless 2. it is now well past 9 o’clock 3/4. the store will be closed 5. The store always closes at 9 o’clock 3. There’s no way we can get to Montreal on time, if we stop in Kingston. When we stop in Kingston, we always end up staying overnight with your friends. If we don’t get to Montreal on time, we’ll miss the wedding. So if we stop in Kingston, then we’ll miss the wedding. 1. There’s no way we can get to Montreal on time 2. if we stop in Kingston 3. When we stop in Kingston, we always end up staying overnight with your friends 4. . If we don’t get to Montreal on time, we’ll miss the wedding 5. if we stop in Kingston, then we’ll miss the wedding. 4. The house is worth the price you’re asking only if it’s in excellent repair. But it doesn’t look to be in such good condition. The plumbing needs work, and so does the wiring. So the house isn’t worth your price. 1. The house is worth the price you’re asking only if it’s in excellent repair 2. But it doesn’t look to be in such good condition 3. The plumbing needs work 4. so does the wiring 5. the house isn’t worth your price 5. Alice is well qualified to work for you as a supervisor. The position requires knowledge of management strategies and experience in handling people. She holds an M.B.A., so you can count on her to understand management strategies; and certainly she has a good background in dealing with people, because she did an excellent job for us as personnel director in our Winnipeg office. 1. Alice is well qualified to work for you as a supervisor 2. The position requires knowledge of management strategies and experience in handling people 3. She holds an M.B.A., so you can count on her to understand management strategies 4. and certainly she has a good background in dealing with people 5. she did an excellent job for us as personnel director in our Winnipeg office.
6. A paradox arises when several equally evident assumptions lead to apparently inconsistent results. Since it is irrational to accept inconsistent results, a paradox is rationally intolerable. Accordingly, a rational person must reject one or other of the assumptions that give rise to the paradox. 1. A paradox arises when several equally evident assumptions lead to apparently inconsistent results. 2. a paradox is rationally intolerable 3/4. it is irrational to accept inconsistent results 5. a rational person must reject one or other of the assumptions that give rise to the paradox. 7. If we introduce a new product line, we will have to drop one of our existing product lines. If we increase our advertising budget, we will run a deficit this quarter. It follows that either we won’t introduce a new product line or we won’t increase our advertising budget, because we won’t both drop an existing product line and run a deficit. But if we don’t both introduce a new product line and increase our advertising budget, then we are taking a risk and may lose market share.. Therefore, we may lose market share. 1. If we introduce a new product line, we will have to drop one of our existing product lines 2. If we increase our advertising budget, we will run a deficit this quarter 3. either we won’t introduce a new product line or we won’t increase our advertising budget 4. But if we don’t both introduce a new product line and increase our advertising budget, then we are taking a risk and may lose market share 5. Therefore, we may lose market share 8. Socrates will act unjustly if he performs an act of ingratitude. Since the Laws of Athens have benefited Socrates by enabling him to live in freedom, he will perform such an act if he does something forbidden by those laws. Escaping from prison is, of course, forbidden by the Laws of Athens. Therefore, Socrates will act unjustly if he escapes from prison 1. Socrates will act unjustly if he performs an act of ingratitude 2. Since the Laws of Athens have benefited Socrates by enabling him to live in freedom 3. he will perform such an act if he does something forbidden by those laws 4. Escaping from prison is, of course, forbidden by the Laws of Athens 5. Therefore, Socrates will act unjustly if he escapes from prison 9. If numbers are ideas, then arithmetic is a branch of psychology. But arithmetic is no more a branch of psychology than astronomy is, for astronomy is concerned, not with ideas of the planets, but with the planets themselves. Hence, objects of arithmetic are not ideas either
1. If numbers are ideas, then arithmetic is a branch of psychology 2. arithmetic is no more a branch of psychology than astronomy is 3/4. for astronomy is concerned, not with ideas of the planets, but with the planets themselves 5. Hence, objects of arithmetic are not ideas either 10. Every natural phenomenon can be explained as the result of natural forces or human will. But if something can be explained in terms of natural forces or human will, then it does not require a supernatural explanation. Thus, we do not need the idea of God in order to explain any part of the world of our experience. But if there is a God, then there are features of the universe that cannot be explained without reference to that being. It follows that God does not exist. 1. Every natural phenomenon can be explained as the result of natural forces or human will 2. we do not need the idea of God in order to explain any part of the world of our experience 3. if something can be explained in terms of natural forces or human will, then it does not require a supernatural explanation 4. if there is a God, then there are features of the universe that cannot be explained without reference to that being 5. God does not exist 11. There is an objective difference between right and wrong action. In that case, there are objective differences in value, for the difference between right and wrong is a difference in value. But if there are objective differences in value, there is an objective standard of value. So there must be an objective standard of value. But the existence of an objective standard of value presupposes the existence of God. It follows that God exists. 1. There is an objective difference between right and wrong action 2. there are objective differences in value, for the difference between right and wrong is a difference in value 3. if there are objective differences in value, there is an objective standard of value 4. But the existence of an objective standard of value presupposes the existence of God 5. It follows that God exists. B. For each of the following examples, say whether the author presents an actual argument. If so, identify the premises and conclusion, indicating any intermediate steps of reasoning. Premise(es) Conclusion
1. Murder and treachery cannot be good without regret being bad: regret cannot be good without treachery and murder being bad. Both, however, are supposed to have been foredoomed; so something must be fatally unreasonable, absurd, and wrong in the world. It must be a place of which either sin or error forms a necessary part. From this dilemma there seems at first sight no escape. -William James, “The Dilemma of Determinism” No actual argument, no solid conclusion. 2. If we take in hand any volume; of divinity or school metaphysics, for instance; let us ask, Does it contain any abstract reasoning concerning quantity or number? No. Does it contain any experimental reasoning concerning matter of fact and existence? No. Commit it to the flames; for it can contain nothing but sophistry and illusion. -David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding No actual argument presented. 3. Revelation is a communication of something which the person to whom the thing is revealed did not know before. For if I have done a thing or seen it done, it needs no revelation to tell me I have done it or seen it, nor to enable me to tell it or write it. Revelation, therefore, cannot be applied to anything done upon earth, of which man himself is the actor or witness; and consequently, all the historical and anecdotal parts of the Bible, which is almost the whole of it, is not within the meaning and compass of the word ‘revelation’, and, therefore, is not the word of God. -Thomas Paine, The Age of Reason 4. Now it is manifest by the natural light that there must be at least as much reality in the efficient and total cause as in its effect. For, pray, whence can the effect derive its reality, if not from its cause? And in what way can this cause communicate this reality to it, unless it possessed it in itself? And from this it follows, not only that something cannot proceed from nothing, but likewise that what is more perfect!that is to say, which has more reality within itself! cannot proceed from the less perfect. -René Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy 5. We see that things which lack intelligence, such as natural bodies, act for an end, and this is evident from their acting always or nearly always, in the same way, so as to obtain the best result . . . . Now whatever lacks intelligence cannot move towards an end unless it be directed by some being endowed with knowledge and intelligence; as the arrow is shot to its mark by the archer. Therefore, some intelligence exists by whom all natural things are directed to their end; and this being we call God. -Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica Explanation, not argument. 6. “. . . You appeared to be surprised when I told you, on our first meeting, that you had come from Afghanistan.” “You were told no doubt.” “Nothing of the sort. I knew you came from Afghanistan. From long habit the train of thoughts ran so swiftly through my mind that I arrived at the conclusion without being conscious of intermediate steps. There
were such steps, however. The train of reasoning ran, ‘Here is a gentleman of medical type, but with the air of a military man. Clearly, an army doctor, then. He has just come from the tropics, for his face is dark, and that is not the natural tint of his skin, for his wrists are fair. He has undergone harshness and sickness, as his haggard face says clearly. His left arm has been injured. He holds it in a stiff and unnatural manner. Where in the tropics could an English army doctor have seen much hardship and got his arm wounded? Clearly in Afghanistan.’ The whole train of thought did not occupy a second. I then remarked that you came from Afghanistan, and you were astonished.” -A. Conan Doyle, A Study in Scarlet Explanation, description.
9. The fence around a cemetery is foolish (CONCLUSION), for those inside can’t get out and those outside don’t want to get in.(PREMISES) -Arthur Brisbane, The Book of Today This (9) is an argument. The premises argue that those who are outside a cemetery do not want to get inside of it, while those who are dead, and thereby dwell inside of it can not get out. This leads to the conclusion that building fences around cemeteries is foolish. 10. During the school period the student has been mentally bending over his desk; at the University he should stand up and look around. (PREMISES) For this reason it is fatal if the first year at the University be frittered away in going over the old work in the old spirit. (CONCLUSION) -A.N. Whitehead, The Aims of Education This (10) is an argument. The premises that the student has been leaning over their work, straining their neck, similar to a hermit. this leads to the conclusion that the first year of University should not be spent living like a Hermit, but rather gaining both knowledge and experience. 11. If we take eternity to mean not infinite temporal duration but timelessness, then eternal life belongs to those who live in the present. -Ludwig Wittgenstein, Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus This (11) is just a statement, as it does not make a significant attempt to convince the reader of any notion, but it also does not attempt to explain anything in particular. 12. Since happiness consists in peace of mind (PREMISE), and since durable peace of mind depends on the confidence we have in the future, and since that confidence is based on the science we should have of the nature of God and the soul, it follows that science is necessary for true happiness. (CONCLUSION) -Gottfried Leibniz, Preface to the General Science This(12) is an argument. the conclusion is that science is necessary for true happiness. the premises argue that peace of mind comes from confidence in the future, with comes from an almost faith-like science, thus deeming science necessary for true happiness. 13. He that accepts protection, stipulates obedience. We have always protected the Americans(PREMISES); we may therefore subject them to government(CONCLUSION). -Samuel Johnson, Address to the Electors of Great Britain This (13) is an argument. The premises argue that a being must be obedient and indebted to their protector. The conclusion states that due to the protection provided for the entity in question, the provider now has sovereignty over that entity. 14. Spriggs, . . . having fallen into a fire when drunk, had one eye burnt out, one cheek burnt through, and one arm nearly burnt off, and, therefore, in regard to personal appearance was not the most prepossessing of men. -Anthony Trollope, The Warden
This (14) is an explanation, it is explaining what happened as a direct result of an event. 15. A tiger has a natural right to eat a man, but if he may eat one man he may eat another, (PREMISES) so that a tiger has a right of property in all men, as potential tiger-meat. (CONCLUSION) -Thomas Henry Huxley, Natural Rights and Political Rights This (15) is an argument. The premises argue that Tigers have the natural right to consume Human beings, that if they consume one they may consumer multiple human beings. The sentence concludes that as a result, Tigers own all human beings as possible meals. 16. Poetry is finer and more philosophical than history,(CONCLUSION) for poetry expresses the universal and history only the particular.(PREMISES) -Aristotle, Poetics This (16) is an argument. The premise argues that poetry expresses a broad range of topics, while history is more specific. this leads to the conclusion that Poetry is finer that history. 17. The Roman Empire crumbled to dust because it lacked the spirit of liberalism and free enterprise. -Ludwig von Mises, Human Action, A Treatise on Economics This (17) is an explanation, as to why a certain factual event took place. 18. . . . since there are more people on the earth than there are hairs on any one person’s head,(PREMISES) I know that there must be at least two people with the same number of hairs (CONCLUSION) . . . . -F.P. Ramsey, The Foundations of Mathematics This (18) is an argument. the premises arguing that there are more people than hairs, thereby there must be a minimum of two people with the same amount of hair. 19. Venus and Mercury must revolve around the sun, (CONCLUSION) because of their never moving far away from it, and because of their being seen now beyond it and now on this side of it (PREMISES). . . . -Galileo Galilei, “Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World System” This (19) is an argument. the premises argue that Venus and Mercury never move far from the sun, and must, therefore, revolve around it. 20. All censorships exist to prevent anyone from challenging current conceptions and existing institutions. All progress is initiated by challenging current conceptions, and executed by supplanting existing institutions. Consequently the first condition of progress is the removal of censorships. There is the whole case against censorships in a nutshell. This (20) is an explanation, telling that there is a whole case against censorship.
Exercise 1.2 2. Going to the store at this hour is pointless. Since it is now well past 9 o’clock, the store will be closed. The store always closes at 9 o’clock. 1. Going to the store at this hour is pointless 2. it is now well past 9 o’clock 3/4. the store will be closed 5. The store always closes at 9 o’clock 3. There’s no way we can get to Montreal on time, if we stop in Kingston. When we stop in Kingston, we always end up staying overnight with your friends. If we don’t get to Montreal on time, we’ll miss the wedding. So if we stop in Kingston, then we’ll miss the wedding. 1. There’s no way we can get to Montreal on time 2. if we stop in Kingston 3. When we stop in Kingston, we always end up staying overnight with your friends 4. . If we don’t get to Montreal on time, we’ll miss the wedding 5. if we stop in Kingston, then we’ll miss the wedding. 4. The house is worth the price you’re asking only if it’s in excellent repair. But it doesn’t look to be in such good condition. The plumbing needs work, and so does the wiring. So the house isn’t worth your price. 1. The house is worth the price you’re asking only if it’s in excellent repair 2. But it doesn’t look to be in such good condition 3. The plumbing needs work 4. so does the wiring 5. the house isn’t worth your price 5. Alice is well qualified to work for you as a supervisor. The position requires knowledge of management strategies and experience in handling people. She holds an M.B.A., so you can count on her to understand management strategies; and certainly she has a good background in dealing with people, because she did an excellent job for us as personnel director in our Winnipeg office. 1. Alice is well qualified to work for you as a supervisor 2. The position requires knowledge of management strategies and experience in handling people 3. She holds an M.B.A., so you can count on her to understand management strategies 4. and certainly she has a good background in dealing with people 5. she did an excellent job for us as personnel director in our Winnipeg office.
6. A paradox arises when several equally evident assumptions lead to apparently inconsistent results. Since it is irrational to accept inconsistent results, a paradox is rationally intolerable. Accordingly, a rational person must reject one or other of the assumptions that give rise to the paradox. 1. A paradox arises when several equally evident assumptions lead to apparently inconsistent results. 2. a paradox is rationally intolerable 3/4. it is irrational to accept inconsistent results 5. a rational person must reject one or other of the assumptions that give rise to the paradox. 7. If we introduce a new product line, we will have to drop one of our existing product lines. If we increase our advertising budget, we will run a deficit this quarter. It follows that either we won’t introduce a new product line or we won’t increase our advertising budget, because we won’t both drop an existing product line and run a deficit. But if we don’t both introduce a new product line and increase our advertising budget, then we are taking a risk and may lose market share.. Therefore, we may lose market share. 1. If we introduce a new product line, we will have to drop one of our existing product lines 2. If we increase our advertising budget, we will run a deficit this quarter 3. either we won’t introduce a new product line or we won’t increase our advertising budget 4. But if we don’t both introduce a new product line and increase our advertising budget, then we are taking a risk and may lose market share 5. Therefore, we may lose market share 8. Socrates will act unjustly if he performs an act of ingratitude. Since the Laws of Athens have benefited Socrates by enabling him to live in freedom, he will perform such an act if he does something forbidden by those laws. Escaping from prison is, of course, forbidden by the Laws of Athens. Therefore, Socrates will act unjustly if he escapes from prison 1. Socrates will act unjustly if he performs an act of ingratitude 2. Since the Laws of Athens have benefited Socrates by enabling him to live in freedom 3. he will perform such an act if he does something forbidden by those laws 4. Escaping from prison is, of course, forbidden by the Laws of Athens 5. Therefore, Socrates will act unjustly if he escapes from prison 9. If numbers are ideas, then arithmetic is a branch of psychology. But arithmetic is no more a branch of psychology than astronomy is, for astronomy is concerned, not with ideas of the planets, but with the planets themselves. Hence, objects of arithmetic are not ideas either
1. If numbers are ideas, then arithmetic is a branch of psychology 2. arithmetic is no more a branch of psychology than astronomy is 3/4. for astronomy is concerned, not with ideas of the planets, but with the planets themselves 5. Hence, objects of arithmetic are not ideas either 10. Every natural phenomenon can be explained as the result of natural forces or human will. But if something can be explained in terms of natural forces or human will, then it does not require a supernatural explanation. Thus, we do not need the idea of God in order to explain any part of the world of our experience. But if there is a God, then there are features of the universe that cannot be explained without reference to that being. It follows that God does not exist. 1. Every natural phenomenon can be explained as the result of natural forces or human will 2. we do not need the idea of God in order to explain any part of the world of our experience 3. if something can be explained in terms of natural forces or human will, then it does not require a supernatural explanation 4. if there is a God, then there are features of the universe that cannot be explained without reference to that being 5. God does not exist 11. There is an objective difference between right and wrong action. In that case, there are objective differences in value, for the difference between right and wrong is a difference in value. But if there are objective differences in value, there is an objective standard of value. So there must be an objective standard of value. But the existence of an objective standard of value presupposes the existence of God. It follows that God exists. 1. There is an objective difference between right and wrong action 2. there are objective differences in value, for the difference between right and wrong is a difference in value 3. if there are objective differences in value, there is an objective standard of value 4. But the existence of an objective standard of value presupposes the existence of God 5. It follows that God exists. B. For each of the following examples, say whether the author presents an actual argument. If so, identify the premises and conclusion, indicating any intermediate steps of reasoning. Premise(es) Conclusion
1. Murder and treachery cannot be good without regret being bad: regret cannot be good without treachery and murder being bad. Both, however, are supposed to have been foredoomed; so something must be fatally unreasonable, absurd, and wrong in the world. It must be a place of which either sin or error forms a necessary part. From this dilemma there seems at first sight no escape. -William James, “The Dilemma of Determinism” No actual argument, no solid conclusion. 2. If we take in hand any volume; of divinity or school metaphysics, for instance; let us ask, Does it contain any abstract reasoning concerning quantity or number? No. Does it contain any experimental reasoning concerning matter of fact and existence? No. Commit it to the flames; for it can contain nothing but sophistry and illusion. -David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding No actual argument presented. 3. Revelation is a communication of something which the person to whom the thing is revealed did not know before. For if I have done a thing or seen it done, it needs no revelation to tell me I have done it or seen it, nor to enable me to tell it or write it. Revelation, therefore, cannot be applied to anything done upon earth, of which man himself is the actor or witness; and consequently, all the historical and anecdotal parts of the Bible, which is almost the whole of it, is not within the meaning and compass of the word ‘revelation’, and, therefore, is not the word of God. -Thomas Paine, The Age of Reason 4. Now it is manifest by the natural light that there must be at least as much reality in the efficient and total cause as in its effect. For, pray, whence can the effect derive its reality, if not from its cause? And in what way can this cause communicate this reality to it, unless it possessed it in itself? And from this it follows, not only that something cannot proceed from nothing, but likewise that what is more perfect!that is to say, which has more reality within itself! cannot proceed from the less perfect. -René Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy 5. We see that things which lack intelligence, such as natural bodies, act for an end, and this is evident from their acting always or nearly always, in the same way, so as to obtain the best result . . . . Now whatever lacks intelligence cannot move towards an end unless it be directed by some being endowed with knowledge and intelligence; as the arrow is shot to its mark by the archer. Therefore, some intelligence exists by whom all natural things are directed to their end; and this being we call God. -Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica Explanation, not argument. 6. “. . . You appeared to be surprised when I told you, on our first meeting, that you had come from Afghanistan.” “You were told no doubt.” “Nothing of the sort. I knew you came from Afghanistan. From long habit the train of thoughts ran so swiftly through my mind that I arrived at the conclusion without being conscious of intermediate steps. There
were such steps, however. The train of reasoning ran, ‘Here is a gentleman of medical type, but with the air of a military man. Clearly, an army doctor, then. He has just come from the tropics, for his face is dark, and that is not the natural tint of his skin, for his wrists are fair. He has undergone harshness and sickness, as his haggard face says clearly. His left arm has been injured. He holds it in a stiff and unnatural manner. Where in the tropics could an English army doctor have seen much hardship and got his arm wounded? Clearly in Afghanistan.’ The whole train of thought did not occupy a second. I then remarked that you came from Afghanistan, and you were astonished.” -A. Conan Doyle, A Study in Scarlet Explanation, description.
