Integrative Wildlife and Habitat Management: Problems ... - CiteSeerX
Stavrinidis & Anayiotos
“Landscape Management and its Impacts on Wildlife – Opportunities for Cyprus” 29/04/2006
Integrative Wildlife and Habitat Management: Problems and Sustainable Solutions in Cyprus Minas Stavrinidis and Petros Anayiotos Officers of Game Fund Service, Cyprus
1. Introduction Cyprus has an area 9250 sq.km and it is the third largest island in the Mediterranean after Sicily and Sardinia. It comprises of the central plain of Mesaoria, the narrow mountain range of Pentadaktylos that runs along the northern coastline and the forested Troodos range occupies a large portion of the southwest. The climate is of the extreme Mediterranean type characterized by long hot summers and cool, wet winters. The spring and fall seasons are short. The average precipitation (1961 – 1990) is 503 mm (Meteorological Service 1992). In parts of Troodos range is as much as 1100 mm and on the central plain as low as 300 mm. more than 80% of the annual precipitation occurs between November and March. In 1974 Turkey invaded Cyprus and 37% of the Republic’s territory is occupied since then. Over 200 thousand people were forced to leave their homes and move to the southern part of the island. This abrupt increase in the population and the loss of land put a lot of pressure on the free part of the island. The increase in development, urban and industrial along with the expanding tourist trade (tourists/year number more than 3.5 x the island’s permanent residents) have contributed in wildlife habitat loss (World Resources Institute 1992) the intensification of agriculture, forest management and the extensive road system decreased available space for wildlife. 2. Problems Change in agriculture practices: it is well documented that intensified agricultural practices can reduce breeding success and have negative impacts on population numbers (NUDDS et al. 1991). The last 4 decades bird populations in Europe have decreased dramatically due to the intensifying of agriculture. Intensification of agriculture and farming systems, leading to lower numbers of chick – food insects and decreased chick survival, a decline in field boundary nesting cover, and an increase in predation pressure during nesting (POTTS 1980 AND 1986; RANDS 1986; AEBISCHER 1997; TAPPER 1999). The mechanization of production leads to the destruction of structural elements of rural landscape that plays sovereign role in the maintenance of biodiversity (Naturopa 1989). The harvest of cereal in end of April, May and June destroys several nests with eggs and chicks. This was the main reason why Corncrake (Crex crex) population in France was reduced from 1900 pairs to 550 between the years of 1980 and 2003 (BirdLife International, 2003). According to the documentation in Cyprus abandoned and destroyed nests are reported by farmers to the Game Wardens in an annual base.
1
Stavrinidis & Anayiotos
“Landscape Management and its Impacts on Wildlife – Opportunities for Cyprus” 29/04/2006
Table1
relation of biodiversity and intensified agriculture Traditional agriculture
12
biodiversity
10 8 6
Series1
4
Intensified agriculture
2 0 1
3
5
7
9
11
13
Intensified agriculture
Source: Hoogeven et al. (2001). Table 2: Changes in numbers of agricultural machinery used (1977-1994) Type of machinery
1977
1985
1994
Change 1977-94 (%)
Tractors Tractors per ha of utilized agricultural land
8,915 0.06
13,316 0.09
16,454 0.12
+84%
Sowing machines Sowing machines per ha of utilized agricultural land
480 0.003
1,060 0.007
2,186 0.015
+355%
Baling machines Baling machines per ha of utilized agricultural land
509 0.0036
1,552 0.0110
2,715 0.0192
+433%
Water pumps 9,922 24,126 27,944 +181% Spraying machines 14,885 14,505 20,441 +37% Other mechanical tools 16,722 15,668 21,391 +28% Total 51,433 70,227 91,131 +77% Source: Technical Analysis of Machinery in Agriculture, Agricultural Research Institute, 1998 Agricultural land includes arable land but excludes fallow, grazing and uncultivated land. Wine grapes are an excellent source of food for many wildlife species, especially in the August-November period when other food supplies are limited. The decrease in area of vineyards and in the percentage representation of permanent crops found in the mountain zones may also contribute to the deterioration of food sources for wildlife in dispersed habitats. 2
Stavrinidis & Anayiotos
“Landscape Management and its Impacts on Wildlife – Opportunities for Cyprus” 29/04/2006
Table 3: Change in vineyard area (ha) Year Irrigated Total (ha) 1960 1.100 28.800 1973 2.700 35.500 1975 2.700 34.800 1985 2.500 30.500 1990 2.400 25.200 1995 2.100 19.300 1999 2.500 19.000
% change Vines as a % of % Irrigated in vine area permanent crops 3,8 1960-75 in the mountain zone 7,6 - 20.8% 7,8 1985 8,2 49% 9,5 10,9 1975-99 1994 13,2 - 45.4% 37%
Source: Norm Input Output data for the main crop enterprises, Agricultural Research Institute.
Area of vines includes both irrigated and non-irrigated vineyards. Vineyard area decreased by 45% between 1975 and 1999. Moreover, the area of table grapes (irrigated) increased compared to the 1960. Use of harmful insecticides and pesticides takes its toll on wildlife every year either directly by killing them or indirectly by introducing harmful chemical agents in the water, soil, etc that affect the ecological chain. In Great Britain for example Common Partridge population (Perdix perdix) was reduced by 85 % in the last 20 years due to the reduction of insects caused by the use of insecticides (POTTS, 1997). Table 4: Active pesticides used per hectare of utilised agricultural land Year Total pesticides Fungicides Herbicides Insecticides Agriculture land (ha) Total kg per ha Sulfur (kg) Area of vines (ha) Total Sulfur (kg) per ha of vines
1960-62 733,000 24,000 98,000 61,000 228,900
Mean for the years (kg) 1972-74 1975-77 1992-94 102,800 650,000 2,097,000 218,000 248,000 652,000 83,000 137,000 448,000 727,000 265,000 977,000 309,000 147,700 138,000
1996-98 2,166,107 1,255,742 277,581 632,784 138,000
3.2 1,539,000 28,800
3.33 1,960,000 35,500
4.40 2,173,000 34,800
15.20 1,368,000 20,850
15.70 n/a n/a
53.4
55.2
62.4
65.6
n/a
Active pesticides figures were calculated using an average x0.6 conversion estimate. To have comparable figures a conversion (x0.6) was made from average weight of pesticides to active weights since figures in the market are not always given as active weights (Department of Agriculture, MANRE). Range overgrazing by free ranging goats and sheep depletes habitats from quality food and screening cover. It causes a reduction in the carrying capacity as annual grass - forb ranges are converted into perennial grass ranges.
3
Stavrinidis & Anayiotos
“Landscape Management and its Impacts on Wildlife – Opportunities for Cyprus” 29/04/2006
Table 5: Animal population by type (000’s) Year
Cattle
Sheep and Lambs
Goats and kids
pigs
1980
24.4
300.0
223.0
173.4
1985
42.1
325.0
225.0
201.5
1990
54.6
290.0
205.0
277.9
1995
68.1
250.0
220.0
374.1
1999
54.0
233.0
346.0
418.5
Source: Statistical service, Agriculture statistics 1999. Uncontrolled wildfires: even though prescribed burning during the appropriate time is a useful habitat management tool by taking the ecological succession back, frequent high intensity fires destroy wildlife habitat through severe reduction of permanent cover. The rainfall that occur in the winter season causes great erosion which effects the burn land to bounce back and recover. Table 6: Fires in land Year
Num. of fires
Total area (sq. km)
2003
3092
7
2004
3076
4,5
2005
2989
10
Source: Fire service Dam construction: Cyprus’s dam capacity was 6.1 million cubic meters in 1970 and increased to 304 million cubic meters by 2000 (IAKOVIDES 1998). The larger rivers and streams in Cyprus are dammed to exploit water resources for agriculture as well as domestic use and support tourism. Dam construction directly affects ecosystems by altering water flow, reducing the rate of groundwater recharge and drying the natural springs upon which wildlife depends in certain areas. Table 7: Rainfall in Cyprus Year
Normal mm
Actual mm
%
10/1996 – 9/1997
503
395
79
10/1997 – 9/1998
503
387,8
77
10/1998 – 9/1999
503
473
94
10/1999 – 9/2000
503
363,2
72
10/2000 – 9/2001
503
467,7
93
10/2001 – 9/2002
503
603
120
4
Stavrinidis & Anayiotos
“Landscape Management and its Impacts on Wildlife – Opportunities for Cyprus” 29/04/2006
10/2002 – 9/2003
503
561,1
112
10/2003 – 9/2004
503
544,8
108
10/2004 – 9/2005
503
412,1
82
10/2005 – 4/2006
467,4
328
70
Source: Meteorological Service 2006
3.
Main wildlife management aspects in Cyprus by the Game Fund
Hunters’ education: Every year hundreds of new hunters have to go through hunting education process in order to get their first hunting license. They are thought about wildlife management and ecology; gun regulation and safety, bird identification, first aid, law and how to behave and respect in a better way the other user of the land. In addition to that Game Fund Officers are visiting every year different hunting clubs and speak to their members about the same issues. The game reserve system regarding hunting is one of the most successful management practices in Cyprus. Over 30% of the island’s area is under the game reserve system where hunting is prohibited. The game reserves are well interspersed throughout the island and are general well respected by hunters. The idea behind this system is to provide a safe haven for birds where they can reach their population potential and then colonize the adjacent areas that have been reduced by hunting. Planting of food plots: due to urbanization and the abandon of land thousands of hectares are planted each year in areas where the abandonment of small scale agriculture practices has led to decrease of suitable habitat and food availability. These small plots create useful edges where brush encroachment previously occurred. They provide high quality food, increase insect populations that are vital food for reproduction and young rearing and increasing nesting cover. This practice is based on the principle that small game species thrive in areas where natural disturbances caused retrogression and initiate secondary ecological succession (BAILEY 1984). Water improvements: the Game Fund improves several hundred natural springs that provide surface water for wildlife during the long, hot and dry summer.
4.
Management recommendations
•
A new policy has to be implemented to help farmers to adopt practices that are friendlier to the quality and economy of water, for soil preservation, bio-diversity and the quality of countryside. (i.e. return to traditional and biological agriculture, beginning of harvest around mid June). Cyprus’s fauna need further study on the ecology of the species to be able to develop adequate management plants for the conservation of the species. Quality of life as measured by ecosystem services i.e. clean water, clean air, natural landscapes, recreation opportunities, abundant wildlife, should be a major component of the planning process when any projects are constructed or improved.
• •
5
Stavrinidis & Anayiotos
• • • • •
“Landscape Management and its Impacts on Wildlife – Opportunities for Cyprus” 29/04/2006
There is a great need for the broader public / hunter awareness of the importance of habitat as a vital element for sustaining wildlife populations along with the recognition of the value of wildlife for a society. Strict control and regulation on insecticides / pesticides that harmful to wildlife along with a campaign of informing the public and especially farmers for their wise use. Limit overgrazing from free ranging goats and sheep by creating modern farming units. Cyprus must urgently apply the legislation that protect habitats from uncontrolled wildfires. Set aside offer an important mechanism to create habitats and resources for game and wildlife on intensively managed arable land. This has been especially important because of the increasing evidence that wildlife inhabiting farmland especially arable ecosystems, is in widespread and severe decline. In Cyprus set aside can be apply in some specific areas where monoculture occurs and certainly the game population {e.g. chukar partridge (Alectoris chukar)} it appears in low numbers. We are certainly sure that if set aside can be applied in these areas it will help the species to increase its numbers by providing more cover and nesting space.
Summary This study explains how some aspects of environmental conditions regarding habitat mismanagement may describe such effects to wildlife as population reduction. It does not quantify impacts on a specific species population but it takes a general perspective on the habitat loss. In Cyprus, loss and deterioration of habitat due to construction of artificial water dams, range overgrazing, destruction from uncontrolled wildfires, use of harmful insecticides and pesticides, decrease amount of annual rainfall and changes in land use have been identified as important causes for the reduction of prime habitats of the chukar partridge (Alectoris chukar) and the black Francolin (Francolinus francolinus) (Hadjigerou 1999, Kassinis 1999) among others which are the main game birds in Cyprus. Zusammenfassung In dieser Studie wird dargelegt, wie bestimmte Aspekte der durch Fehlbewirtschaftung von Lebensraum hervorgerufenen Umweltbedingungen zu Populationsrückgängen bei Wildtieren führen kann. Ferner werden die Auswirkungen nicht für eine bestimmte Spezies quantifiziert, sondern eine allgemeine Perspektive zum Verlust von Lebensraum aufgezeigt. In Zypern konnte nachgewiesen werden, dass der Verlust bzw. die Verschlechterung von Habitat u.a. aufgrund des Baus von künstlichen Staudämmen, der Überweidung, der Zerstörung durch Waldbrände, des Einsatzes von schädlichen Pflanzenschutz- und Schädlingsbekämpfungsmitteln, des Rückgangs der jährlichen Niederschlagsmenge, sowie Veränderungen in der Landnutzung, wichtige Faktoren bei der Abnahme der Primärlebensräume des Chukar-Rebhuhns (Alectoris chukar) und des schwarzen Frankolinhuhns (Francolinus francolinus) sind. Diese beiden sind die Hauptjagdvögel auf Zypern.
6
Stavrinidis & Anayiotos
“Landscape Management and its Impacts on Wildlife – Opportunities for Cyprus” 29/04/2006
Résumé Cette étude montre dans quelle mesure certains aspects des conditions environnementales dus à une mauvaise exploitation des milieux conduisent parfois à un déclin des populations de la faune sauvage. Plutôt que d’exposer les conséquences de façon quantitative pour certaines espèces, cette étude présente une perspective générale quant à la perte des espaces vitaux. A Chypre, il a pu être prouvé que la perte ou la dégradation des habitats en raison, entre autres, de la construction de barrages artificiels, du surpâturage, de la destruction de territoires par des incendies de forêt, de l’utilisation de produits phytosanitaires et d’insecticides toxiques, de la baisse du taux annuel des précipitations ou encore de changements dans l’utilisation du territoire, sont des facteurs essentiels de la diminution des espaces vitaux primaires de la perdrix bartavelle (Alectoris chukar) et du francolin noir (Francolinus francolinus). Ces deux espèces constituent les principaux oiseaux chassés à Chypre. References •
AEBISCHER, N. J., 1997: Effects of cropping practises on declining farmland birds during the breeding season. In: 1997 Brighton Crop Protection Conference – Weeds. Farnham, British Crop Protection Council pp. 915 – 922.
•
AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS REPORTS No. 6, 8, 32, 39. – 1992, 1997, 1998, 1999. Agricultural Research Institute, Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources and the Environment (MANRE).
•
BAILEY, J. A. 1984. Principles of wildlife management, Hohn Willey and Sons New York N.Y pp. 373
•
BIRDLIFE INTERNATIONAL (2003) Agri-environment schemes and birds. The case study of the Corncrake Crex crex.
•
SOTHERTON N. Gamebird conservation through the use of Set – Aside. Agriculture Landscapes ae Habitats. Proceedings of a Pan-European Symposium 2004. pp. 175192.
•
HADGIJEROU P. 2001. Post breeding population status for 1999 and harvest records for 1998 for Francolinus francolinus in Cyprus. Proceedings of the Symposium on the status, management and conservation of the species Alectoris, Black Francolin, Thrush, Quail and Turtle Dove in the Mediterranean Region. C.I.C. pp. 168-176.
•
HEAD QUARTER OF FIRE SERVICE, Nicosia 2006
•
HOOGEVEEN Y.R., PETERSEN J.E. and P. GABRIELSEN (2001) Agriculture and Biodiversity in Europe. Background report to the High-Level European Conference on Agriculture and Biodiversity, 5-7 June, Paris, STRA-CO/AGRI, Council of Europe/UNEP.
•
IAKOVIDES, I. 1998. Development of surface waters in Cyprus, Water Development Department.
•
KASSINIS N. 2001. Chukar partridge status and conservation in Cyprus. Proceedings of the Symposium on the status, management and conservation of the species Alectoris, Black Francolin, Thrush, Quail and Turtle Dove in the Mediterranean Region. C.I.C. pp. 84-89. 7
Stavrinidis & Anayiotos
“Landscape Management and its Impacts on Wildlife – Opportunities for Cyprus” 29/04/2006
•
METEOROLOGICAL SERVICE, Nicosia 1992, Statistics of precipitation 1961 – 1990 and monthly rainfall in Cyprus during the hydrometeorological years 1996 -2006.
•
NATUROPA (1989) Γεωργία και Άγρια Ζωή. ΕΕΠΦ, ΓΓΝΓ. Συµβούλιο της Ευρώπης, Στρασβούργο
•
NUDDS D. T. AND COLE, W. R. 1991. Changes in populations and breeding success of boreal forest ducks. Journal of Wildlife Management, 55(4): pp. 569-573.
•
PANAYIDES P. 2005. Six Aspects of Land Use and Development Activity that Result in Adverse Effects to Cypriot Wildlife Resources. Proceedings of the XXVth International Congress of the International Union of Game Biologists – IUGB and the IXth International Symposium Perdix, Vol. 2. pp. 182 - 196
•
POOTS, G. R. 1980: The effects of modern agriculture, nest predation and game management on the population ecology of partridges (Pedrix pedrix and Alectoris rufa). Advan. Ecol. Res 11, pp. 1 – 82.
•
POOTS, G. R. 1986: the partridge: Pesticides, Predation and Conservation. London: Collins Professional and Technical Books.
•
POTTS (1997) Cereal farming, pesticides and grey partridges. Pp. 150-177. In Pain, D.J., Pienkowski, M.W. Eds. Farming and Birds in Europe. The Common Agricultural Policy and its Implications for Bird Conservation. London: Academic Press.
•
RANDS, M. R. W., 1986: Effect of hedgerow characteristics on partridge breeding densities. J. Appl. Ecol., 23, pp. 479 – 487.
•
STATISTICAL ABSTRACT. 1999. Department of Statistics and Research, Ministry of Finance – Cyprus.
•
TAPPER, S. C. (ed) 1999: A Question of Balance – Game animals and their role in the British countryside. Fordingbridge: The Game Conservancy Trust.
•
WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE. 1992. Environmental almanac. Houghton Miffin company.
•
Boston. Mass, p. 606
8
“Landscape Management and its Impacts on Wildlife – Opportunities for Cyprus” 29/04/2006
Integrative Wildlife and Habitat Management: Problems and Sustainable Solutions in Cyprus Minas Stavrinidis and Petros Anayiotos Officers of Game Fund Service, Cyprus
1. Introduction Cyprus has an area 9250 sq.km and it is the third largest island in the Mediterranean after Sicily and Sardinia. It comprises of the central plain of Mesaoria, the narrow mountain range of Pentadaktylos that runs along the northern coastline and the forested Troodos range occupies a large portion of the southwest. The climate is of the extreme Mediterranean type characterized by long hot summers and cool, wet winters. The spring and fall seasons are short. The average precipitation (1961 – 1990) is 503 mm (Meteorological Service 1992). In parts of Troodos range is as much as 1100 mm and on the central plain as low as 300 mm. more than 80% of the annual precipitation occurs between November and March. In 1974 Turkey invaded Cyprus and 37% of the Republic’s territory is occupied since then. Over 200 thousand people were forced to leave their homes and move to the southern part of the island. This abrupt increase in the population and the loss of land put a lot of pressure on the free part of the island. The increase in development, urban and industrial along with the expanding tourist trade (tourists/year number more than 3.5 x the island’s permanent residents) have contributed in wildlife habitat loss (World Resources Institute 1992) the intensification of agriculture, forest management and the extensive road system decreased available space for wildlife. 2. Problems Change in agriculture practices: it is well documented that intensified agricultural practices can reduce breeding success and have negative impacts on population numbers (NUDDS et al. 1991). The last 4 decades bird populations in Europe have decreased dramatically due to the intensifying of agriculture. Intensification of agriculture and farming systems, leading to lower numbers of chick – food insects and decreased chick survival, a decline in field boundary nesting cover, and an increase in predation pressure during nesting (POTTS 1980 AND 1986; RANDS 1986; AEBISCHER 1997; TAPPER 1999). The mechanization of production leads to the destruction of structural elements of rural landscape that plays sovereign role in the maintenance of biodiversity (Naturopa 1989). The harvest of cereal in end of April, May and June destroys several nests with eggs and chicks. This was the main reason why Corncrake (Crex crex) population in France was reduced from 1900 pairs to 550 between the years of 1980 and 2003 (BirdLife International, 2003). According to the documentation in Cyprus abandoned and destroyed nests are reported by farmers to the Game Wardens in an annual base.
1
Stavrinidis & Anayiotos
“Landscape Management and its Impacts on Wildlife – Opportunities for Cyprus” 29/04/2006
Table1
relation of biodiversity and intensified agriculture Traditional agriculture
12
biodiversity
10 8 6
Series1
4
Intensified agriculture
2 0 1
3
5
7
9
11
13
Intensified agriculture
Source: Hoogeven et al. (2001). Table 2: Changes in numbers of agricultural machinery used (1977-1994) Type of machinery
1977
1985
1994
Change 1977-94 (%)
Tractors Tractors per ha of utilized agricultural land
8,915 0.06
13,316 0.09
16,454 0.12
+84%
Sowing machines Sowing machines per ha of utilized agricultural land
480 0.003
1,060 0.007
2,186 0.015
+355%
Baling machines Baling machines per ha of utilized agricultural land
509 0.0036
1,552 0.0110
2,715 0.0192
+433%
Water pumps 9,922 24,126 27,944 +181% Spraying machines 14,885 14,505 20,441 +37% Other mechanical tools 16,722 15,668 21,391 +28% Total 51,433 70,227 91,131 +77% Source: Technical Analysis of Machinery in Agriculture, Agricultural Research Institute, 1998 Agricultural land includes arable land but excludes fallow, grazing and uncultivated land. Wine grapes are an excellent source of food for many wildlife species, especially in the August-November period when other food supplies are limited. The decrease in area of vineyards and in the percentage representation of permanent crops found in the mountain zones may also contribute to the deterioration of food sources for wildlife in dispersed habitats. 2
Stavrinidis & Anayiotos
“Landscape Management and its Impacts on Wildlife – Opportunities for Cyprus” 29/04/2006
Table 3: Change in vineyard area (ha) Year Irrigated Total (ha) 1960 1.100 28.800 1973 2.700 35.500 1975 2.700 34.800 1985 2.500 30.500 1990 2.400 25.200 1995 2.100 19.300 1999 2.500 19.000
% change Vines as a % of % Irrigated in vine area permanent crops 3,8 1960-75 in the mountain zone 7,6 - 20.8% 7,8 1985 8,2 49% 9,5 10,9 1975-99 1994 13,2 - 45.4% 37%
Source: Norm Input Output data for the main crop enterprises, Agricultural Research Institute.
Area of vines includes both irrigated and non-irrigated vineyards. Vineyard area decreased by 45% between 1975 and 1999. Moreover, the area of table grapes (irrigated) increased compared to the 1960. Use of harmful insecticides and pesticides takes its toll on wildlife every year either directly by killing them or indirectly by introducing harmful chemical agents in the water, soil, etc that affect the ecological chain. In Great Britain for example Common Partridge population (Perdix perdix) was reduced by 85 % in the last 20 years due to the reduction of insects caused by the use of insecticides (POTTS, 1997). Table 4: Active pesticides used per hectare of utilised agricultural land Year Total pesticides Fungicides Herbicides Insecticides Agriculture land (ha) Total kg per ha Sulfur (kg) Area of vines (ha) Total Sulfur (kg) per ha of vines
1960-62 733,000 24,000 98,000 61,000 228,900
Mean for the years (kg) 1972-74 1975-77 1992-94 102,800 650,000 2,097,000 218,000 248,000 652,000 83,000 137,000 448,000 727,000 265,000 977,000 309,000 147,700 138,000
1996-98 2,166,107 1,255,742 277,581 632,784 138,000
3.2 1,539,000 28,800
3.33 1,960,000 35,500
4.40 2,173,000 34,800
15.20 1,368,000 20,850
15.70 n/a n/a
53.4
55.2
62.4
65.6
n/a
Active pesticides figures were calculated using an average x0.6 conversion estimate. To have comparable figures a conversion (x0.6) was made from average weight of pesticides to active weights since figures in the market are not always given as active weights (Department of Agriculture, MANRE). Range overgrazing by free ranging goats and sheep depletes habitats from quality food and screening cover. It causes a reduction in the carrying capacity as annual grass - forb ranges are converted into perennial grass ranges.
3
Stavrinidis & Anayiotos
“Landscape Management and its Impacts on Wildlife – Opportunities for Cyprus” 29/04/2006
Table 5: Animal population by type (000’s) Year
Cattle
Sheep and Lambs
Goats and kids
pigs
1980
24.4
300.0
223.0
173.4
1985
42.1
325.0
225.0
201.5
1990
54.6
290.0
205.0
277.9
1995
68.1
250.0
220.0
374.1
1999
54.0
233.0
346.0
418.5
Source: Statistical service, Agriculture statistics 1999. Uncontrolled wildfires: even though prescribed burning during the appropriate time is a useful habitat management tool by taking the ecological succession back, frequent high intensity fires destroy wildlife habitat through severe reduction of permanent cover. The rainfall that occur in the winter season causes great erosion which effects the burn land to bounce back and recover. Table 6: Fires in land Year
Num. of fires
Total area (sq. km)
2003
3092
7
2004
3076
4,5
2005
2989
10
Source: Fire service Dam construction: Cyprus’s dam capacity was 6.1 million cubic meters in 1970 and increased to 304 million cubic meters by 2000 (IAKOVIDES 1998). The larger rivers and streams in Cyprus are dammed to exploit water resources for agriculture as well as domestic use and support tourism. Dam construction directly affects ecosystems by altering water flow, reducing the rate of groundwater recharge and drying the natural springs upon which wildlife depends in certain areas. Table 7: Rainfall in Cyprus Year
Normal mm
Actual mm
%
10/1996 – 9/1997
503
395
79
10/1997 – 9/1998
503
387,8
77
10/1998 – 9/1999
503
473
94
10/1999 – 9/2000
503
363,2
72
10/2000 – 9/2001
503
467,7
93
10/2001 – 9/2002
503
603
120
4
Stavrinidis & Anayiotos
“Landscape Management and its Impacts on Wildlife – Opportunities for Cyprus” 29/04/2006
10/2002 – 9/2003
503
561,1
112
10/2003 – 9/2004
503
544,8
108
10/2004 – 9/2005
503
412,1
82
10/2005 – 4/2006
467,4
328
70
Source: Meteorological Service 2006
3.
Main wildlife management aspects in Cyprus by the Game Fund
Hunters’ education: Every year hundreds of new hunters have to go through hunting education process in order to get their first hunting license. They are thought about wildlife management and ecology; gun regulation and safety, bird identification, first aid, law and how to behave and respect in a better way the other user of the land. In addition to that Game Fund Officers are visiting every year different hunting clubs and speak to their members about the same issues. The game reserve system regarding hunting is one of the most successful management practices in Cyprus. Over 30% of the island’s area is under the game reserve system where hunting is prohibited. The game reserves are well interspersed throughout the island and are general well respected by hunters. The idea behind this system is to provide a safe haven for birds where they can reach their population potential and then colonize the adjacent areas that have been reduced by hunting. Planting of food plots: due to urbanization and the abandon of land thousands of hectares are planted each year in areas where the abandonment of small scale agriculture practices has led to decrease of suitable habitat and food availability. These small plots create useful edges where brush encroachment previously occurred. They provide high quality food, increase insect populations that are vital food for reproduction and young rearing and increasing nesting cover. This practice is based on the principle that small game species thrive in areas where natural disturbances caused retrogression and initiate secondary ecological succession (BAILEY 1984). Water improvements: the Game Fund improves several hundred natural springs that provide surface water for wildlife during the long, hot and dry summer.
4.
Management recommendations
•
A new policy has to be implemented to help farmers to adopt practices that are friendlier to the quality and economy of water, for soil preservation, bio-diversity and the quality of countryside. (i.e. return to traditional and biological agriculture, beginning of harvest around mid June). Cyprus’s fauna need further study on the ecology of the species to be able to develop adequate management plants for the conservation of the species. Quality of life as measured by ecosystem services i.e. clean water, clean air, natural landscapes, recreation opportunities, abundant wildlife, should be a major component of the planning process when any projects are constructed or improved.
• •
5
Stavrinidis & Anayiotos
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“Landscape Management and its Impacts on Wildlife – Opportunities for Cyprus” 29/04/2006
There is a great need for the broader public / hunter awareness of the importance of habitat as a vital element for sustaining wildlife populations along with the recognition of the value of wildlife for a society. Strict control and regulation on insecticides / pesticides that harmful to wildlife along with a campaign of informing the public and especially farmers for their wise use. Limit overgrazing from free ranging goats and sheep by creating modern farming units. Cyprus must urgently apply the legislation that protect habitats from uncontrolled wildfires. Set aside offer an important mechanism to create habitats and resources for game and wildlife on intensively managed arable land. This has been especially important because of the increasing evidence that wildlife inhabiting farmland especially arable ecosystems, is in widespread and severe decline. In Cyprus set aside can be apply in some specific areas where monoculture occurs and certainly the game population {e.g. chukar partridge (Alectoris chukar)} it appears in low numbers. We are certainly sure that if set aside can be applied in these areas it will help the species to increase its numbers by providing more cover and nesting space.
Summary This study explains how some aspects of environmental conditions regarding habitat mismanagement may describe such effects to wildlife as population reduction. It does not quantify impacts on a specific species population but it takes a general perspective on the habitat loss. In Cyprus, loss and deterioration of habitat due to construction of artificial water dams, range overgrazing, destruction from uncontrolled wildfires, use of harmful insecticides and pesticides, decrease amount of annual rainfall and changes in land use have been identified as important causes for the reduction of prime habitats of the chukar partridge (Alectoris chukar) and the black Francolin (Francolinus francolinus) (Hadjigerou 1999, Kassinis 1999) among others which are the main game birds in Cyprus. Zusammenfassung In dieser Studie wird dargelegt, wie bestimmte Aspekte der durch Fehlbewirtschaftung von Lebensraum hervorgerufenen Umweltbedingungen zu Populationsrückgängen bei Wildtieren führen kann. Ferner werden die Auswirkungen nicht für eine bestimmte Spezies quantifiziert, sondern eine allgemeine Perspektive zum Verlust von Lebensraum aufgezeigt. In Zypern konnte nachgewiesen werden, dass der Verlust bzw. die Verschlechterung von Habitat u.a. aufgrund des Baus von künstlichen Staudämmen, der Überweidung, der Zerstörung durch Waldbrände, des Einsatzes von schädlichen Pflanzenschutz- und Schädlingsbekämpfungsmitteln, des Rückgangs der jährlichen Niederschlagsmenge, sowie Veränderungen in der Landnutzung, wichtige Faktoren bei der Abnahme der Primärlebensräume des Chukar-Rebhuhns (Alectoris chukar) und des schwarzen Frankolinhuhns (Francolinus francolinus) sind. Diese beiden sind die Hauptjagdvögel auf Zypern.
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Stavrinidis & Anayiotos
“Landscape Management and its Impacts on Wildlife – Opportunities for Cyprus” 29/04/2006
Résumé Cette étude montre dans quelle mesure certains aspects des conditions environnementales dus à une mauvaise exploitation des milieux conduisent parfois à un déclin des populations de la faune sauvage. Plutôt que d’exposer les conséquences de façon quantitative pour certaines espèces, cette étude présente une perspective générale quant à la perte des espaces vitaux. A Chypre, il a pu être prouvé que la perte ou la dégradation des habitats en raison, entre autres, de la construction de barrages artificiels, du surpâturage, de la destruction de territoires par des incendies de forêt, de l’utilisation de produits phytosanitaires et d’insecticides toxiques, de la baisse du taux annuel des précipitations ou encore de changements dans l’utilisation du territoire, sont des facteurs essentiels de la diminution des espaces vitaux primaires de la perdrix bartavelle (Alectoris chukar) et du francolin noir (Francolinus francolinus). Ces deux espèces constituent les principaux oiseaux chassés à Chypre. References •
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