Modern benthic foraminiferal distribution from the Bellingshausen ...
Modern benthic foraminiferal distribution from the Bellingshausen/Pacific sector of the Antarctic Peninsula SCOTT E. ISI-IMAN
Byrd Polar Research Ceo ter
and
Departnient of Geology and Mineralogy Ohio State University Columbus, 0/lu) 43210
Benthic foraminifera serve as useful proxies to paleoceanography, paleoclimatology, and paleogeography. Their use in polar regions has been restricted, however, due to the limited number of polar ecologic studies. Therefore, to provide more comprehensive interpretations of past oceanographic, climatic, and geographic conditions based on benthic foraminifera, a more thorough understanding of their ecologic constraints must be attained. The purpose of this ongoing study has been to develop the ground-truth for Antarctic Peninsula benthic foraminifera to use them effectively as paleoclimatic indicators in downcore studies. During the austral summers of 1985-1986 and 1987-1988, surface sediment samples and bottom-water measurements were collected from the margin of the Bellingshausen/Pacific sector of the Antarctic Peninsula (figure 1), from the USCGC Glacier [Deep Freeze (DF) 86] and R/V Polar Duke [U.S. Antarctic Program (USAP) 88], respectively. These data were collected across distinct climatic gradients (precipitation and temperature) north to south along the west coast of the Antarctic Peninsula. Surface sediment distributions indicate dominance of diatomaceous muds and oozes with occasional compound glaciomarine sediments (see Anderson et al. 1980; Griffith and Anderson 1989; Kennedy and Anderson 1989). Sedimentation rates in the antarctic bays and fjords differ from typical arctic fjords by being close to an order of magnitude or more lower (on the order of millimeters per year as opposed to close to meters per year). These conditions increase the potential of acquiring relatively longer antarctic than arctic continuous records from piston coring (up to 5,000 years). Only until recently has the oceanography of antarctic bays and fjords been studied (Domack and Williams in press). Domack and Williams (in press) and Williams (1989) show that a complex interplay of processes control the oceanographic circulation, and hence fine sediment distribution in the glacially influenced bays and fjords of the Antarctic Peninsula. The data used in this study include 61 sediment samples collected from Admiralty Bay, King George Island, south to Marguerite Bay (figure 1). Surface sediment samples were preserved upon collection for identification of living (protoplasmcontaining) and dead benthic foraminiferal assemblages. The samples were further processed, using standard techniques, and the greater than 63 micron size fraction was analyzed for benthic foraminifera at Ohio State University. A total of 102 benthic foraminiferal species were identified in this study. This included calcareous benthic and agglutinated taxa. Canonical discriminant analysis of the assemblages defined four faunas that were geographically distinct: Archi1989 REVIEW
pelago Bays fauna, Peninsula Coast Bays fauna, Marguerite Bay fauna, and Strait (Gerlache and Bransfield) fauna (figure 2). The latter two faunas were dominated by agglutinated taxa (greater than 65 percent). Percent calcareous benthic foraminifera versus depth shows an abrupt decrease in calcareous taxa at depths greater than 1,000 meters in Marguerite Bay and the Gerlache and Bransfield straits, suggesting calcium carbonate undersaturation of the bottom waters below this depth. These faunas are distinguished from each other based on the high abundance of Pseudoboliviva antarctica (Wiesner), Textulana tenuissima Earland, and T. wiesneri Earland from Marguerite Bay, and dominance of Hal lopliraginoides parkerae (Uchio) from the Gerlache and Bransfield straits. This distinction of the faunal compositions between Marguerite Bay and the straits suggest particular bottom-water masses controlling these faunas, possibly associated with Bellingshausen Sea and Bransfield Basin resident bottom-water influences, respectively (Gordon and Nowlin 1978). This is in keeping with the deep-water oceanography of the Bransfield Strait observed by Gordon and Nowlin (1978) where the basin bottom waters are unique (lower temperature, salinity, and nutrient concentrations, and better oxygenated than adjacent bottom-water masses) and that the Bellingshausen Sea influence dissipates to the east-northeast. The Archipelago and Peninsula bays faunas are closely associated with each other (overlap illustrated in figure 2b) and very distinct from the Strait and Marguerite Bay faunas. Intercluster correlation of the faunal groups shows that the for-
Figure 1. Map showing the Bellingshausen/Pacific sector of the Antarctic Peninsula and the areas sampled for this study. Archipelago Includes areas 1 and 4; Danco Coast includes Areas 2, 3, and 5; and Marguerite Bay Includes area 6.
121
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Figure 2. Canonical discriminant analysis results defining the major faunal groups with geographic significance along canonical axes 1-3 A and B. Archipelago bays fauna (A), Danco Coast bays fauna (D), Marguerite Bay fauna (M), and Strait fauna (S). C and D. Canonical discriminant analysis results of the bay faunas defining the Inner-(I), Mid-(M), and Outer-bay (0) biofacies.
mer two groups (Archipelago and Peninsula) have the highest correlation coefficients ( R 2 = 0.86). Figure 2a-b illustrates the discrimination of the faunas along canonical axes 1-2 (that account for 98 percent of the variance). Axis 1 clearly separates the Marguerite Bay (M) and Strait (5) faunal groups, as well as the Archipelago (A) and Peninsula (D) groups from the Marguerite Bay group. The Archipelago and Peninsula faunas are discriminated from the Strait fauna along canonical axis 2. Finally, axis 3 is significant in separating the Archipelago and Peninsula faunal groups. Figure 2b illustrates, however, the overlap that exists between these two groups suggested by the high intercluster correlation described above. This is not an unexpected result considering that some of the Archipelago bay sites are only spacially separated from the Peninsula bay sites (Danco Coast) by the Gerlache Strait (approximately 31 kilometers), and that the geographic configurations of these bays (depth, relative surface area, etc.) are similar. Distinct benthic foraminiferal biofacies were recognized for the Archipelago and Peninsula bays (figure 2c-d). These biofacies represent Inner-, Mid-, and Outer-bay facies. Average species richness (number of species present) values for each biofacies are 19.94 (Inner-bay), 27.76 (Mid-bay), and 27.00 (Outerbay) indicating a significant (39 percent) increase in diversity 122
from the Inner- to Outer-bay. Average number of living benthic foraminifera per cubic centimeter of sediment processed ranges from 48.9 individuals per cubic centimeter (Inner bay) to 168.2 individuals per cubic centimeter (Mid bay). Species dominance differentiates each biofacies. Species common to these biofacies are Fursenkoina spp. The Inner-bay biofacies (I) is characterized by a significant abundance (greater than 10 percent) of Gbbocassidulina subgbohosa (Brady) and Cibicides bobatulus (Walker and Jacob). The Mid-bay biofacies is marked by the occurrence of Bolivina pseudopunctata Hoglund, P. antarctica (Parr), T. wiesneri, T. ten uissiina, Epistoininella exigua (Brady), and Trochainininella bullata Hoglund. The Outer-bay biofacies is distinguished by the abundance of Reophax subdentabiniforinis (Parr) and Trochaininina cf. intermedia Rhumbler, and the paucity of G. subglohosa. The biofacies patterns, from Inner- to Outer-hay, have a positive correlation with increasing distance from ice fronts, and mud and organic carbon content of the surface sediments. Bottom-water salinity, temperature, and dissolved oxygen conditions show very little variation between these regions and, therefore, are of secondary importance to the distribution of the bay benthic foraminifera. Surface productivity plays a significant role in the production of organic carbon. DeMaster et al. (1987) show that in the ANTARCTIC JOURNAL
Bransfield Strait, up to 10 percent of the organic carbon generated in the surface waters is preserved in the surface sediments. The association of benthic foraminiferal biofacies with organic carbon distribution provides a proxy for tracing changes in productivity patterns. This relationship between surface productivity and benthic foraminiferal distribution has been demonstrated in several low-latitude studies (Berger and Diester-Haass 1988; Gooday 1988; Loubere 1988; Phleger and Soutar 1973, to name a few). Surface productivity (mainly diatom blooms) in the southern high latitudes is a function of annual sea-ice and semi-permanent ice-shelf conditions (Smith and Nelson 1986). Ice conditions, and primary productivity and its transformation to the substrate (as organic carbon) are dependent on local and regional climatic and oceanographic conditions. It is suggested here that the distributions of the benthic foraminifera provide a proxy record of surface productivity and are, therefore, a useful tool for paleoclimatic and paleoceanographic reconstruction for the Antarctic Peninsula region; however, much more study of the various flux rates and physical oceanographic conditions, in tandem with sediment analyses, needs to be conducted in order to formulate precise models on the interaction between the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. This work was supported in part by National Science Foundation grants DPP 85-16908 to John B. Anderson and DPP 8517625 to Peter N. Webb as part of my Ph.D. research at the Ohio State University under Peter N. Webb. Additional funding was provided through a Shell Doctoral Fellowship to the author. I would like to gratefully acknowledge the crews of the USCGC Glacier and RIV Polar Duke and those members of the scientific parties associated with those cruises. Special thanks to John B. Anderson for providing me with the opportunity to participate. Finally, thanks go to Dennis S. Cassidy of the Antarctic Research Facility at Florida State University for his helpful advice and cooperation with sample procurement.
Heat-flow measurements in the King George Basin, Bransfield Strait SEIIcHI NAGIHARA* and
LAWRENCE A. LAWyER
Institute for Geophysics University of Texas at Austin Austin, Texas 78759-8345
During R'V Polar Duke PD-IV-89 cruise, we conducted a marine heat-flow survey in the King George Basin (62°20'S 57°45'W) of Bransfield Strait. Our objective was to investigate the tectonic history of this basin and the presumed occurrence of hydrothermal activity. We collected thermal gradient data at * Also at Department of Geological Sciences, University of Texas at Austin.
1989 REVIEW
References
Anderson, J.B., D.D. Kurtz, E.W. Domack, and K.M. Balshaw. 1980. Glacial and glacial marine sediments of the Antarctic continental shelf. Journal of Geology, 88, 399-414. Berger, W.H., and L. Diester-Haass. 1988. Paleoproductivity: The benthic/planktonic ratio in foraminifera as a productivity index. Marine Geology, 81, 15-25. DeMaster, D.J., T.M. Nelson, C.A. Nittrouer, and S.L. Harden. 1987. Biogenic silica and organic carbon accumulation in modern Bransfield Strait sediments. Antarctic Journal of the U.S., 22(5), 108-110. Domack, E.W., and C.R. Williams. In press. Fine-structure and suspended sediment transport in three antarctic fjords. Antarctic Research Series, (Annual Volume) Washington, D.C.: American Geophysical Union. Gooday, A.J. 1988. A response by benthic foraminifera to the deposition of phytodetritus in the deep sea. Nature, 332, 70-73. Gordon, A.L., and W.D. Nowlin, Jr. 1978. The basin waters of the Bransfield Strait. Journal of Physical Oceanography, 8, 258-264. Griffith, T.W., and J.B. Anderson. 1989. Climatic controls on sedimentation in bays and fjords of the northern Antarctic Peninsula. Marine Geology, 85, 181-204. Kennedy, D.S., and J.B. Anderson. 1989. Glacial-marine sedimentation and Quaternary glacial history of Marguerite Bay, Antarctic Peninsula. Quaternaril Research, 31, 255-276. Loubere, P. 1988. Deep ocean benthic foraminifera assemblage response to a surface ocean productivity gradient. Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs, 20(7), A69. Phleger, F.B., and A. Soutar. 1973. Production of benthic foraminif era in three east Pacific oxygen minima. Micropaleontology, 19(1), 110115. Smith, W.O., and D.M. Nelson. 1986. The importance of ice-edge phytoplankton production in the Southern Ocean. Bioscience, 36, 251-257. Williams, C . R. 1989. Temperature and sediment characteristics of a subpolar fiord: Cierva Cove, Antarctica. (BA. Thesis, Hamilton College, Clinton, New York.)
54 stations and in situ thermal conductivity data at 22 of those stations. Piston cores were taken at six sites and were used for thermal conductivity measurements made on board using the needle-probe technique (Von Herzen and Maxwell 1959). In conjunction with the heat-flow survey, seismic surveys were made with the 3.5-kilohertz echo sounder and the single-channel seismic reflection system which used a 100-cubic-inch water gun. Throughout the King George Basin, the sea floor is flat (1,960-1,990 meters) and well sedimented although no basement structure could be seen. Our new heat-flow probe (Nagihara et al. in preparation) which was first used on this cruise, combines precision with efficiency. It consists of three outrigger-bows, each 1.5 meters in length and 6.4 millimeters in diameter, spirally mounted on a 5-meter-long strength member (figure 1). Each outrigger-bow sensor string contains four equally spaced thermistors and a heater wire which uses the pulse-heating method (Lister 1979) to measure in situ thermal conductivity. The thermistors are spaced at a 30-centimeter interval for the bottom (number 1) bow and at a 25-centimeter interval for the middle (number 2) and upper (number 3) bows. The 12 thermistors from the three sensor strings cover a 3-meter depth interval. The use of mul123
Byrd Polar Research Ceo ter
and
Departnient of Geology and Mineralogy Ohio State University Columbus, 0/lu) 43210
Benthic foraminifera serve as useful proxies to paleoceanography, paleoclimatology, and paleogeography. Their use in polar regions has been restricted, however, due to the limited number of polar ecologic studies. Therefore, to provide more comprehensive interpretations of past oceanographic, climatic, and geographic conditions based on benthic foraminifera, a more thorough understanding of their ecologic constraints must be attained. The purpose of this ongoing study has been to develop the ground-truth for Antarctic Peninsula benthic foraminifera to use them effectively as paleoclimatic indicators in downcore studies. During the austral summers of 1985-1986 and 1987-1988, surface sediment samples and bottom-water measurements were collected from the margin of the Bellingshausen/Pacific sector of the Antarctic Peninsula (figure 1), from the USCGC Glacier [Deep Freeze (DF) 86] and R/V Polar Duke [U.S. Antarctic Program (USAP) 88], respectively. These data were collected across distinct climatic gradients (precipitation and temperature) north to south along the west coast of the Antarctic Peninsula. Surface sediment distributions indicate dominance of diatomaceous muds and oozes with occasional compound glaciomarine sediments (see Anderson et al. 1980; Griffith and Anderson 1989; Kennedy and Anderson 1989). Sedimentation rates in the antarctic bays and fjords differ from typical arctic fjords by being close to an order of magnitude or more lower (on the order of millimeters per year as opposed to close to meters per year). These conditions increase the potential of acquiring relatively longer antarctic than arctic continuous records from piston coring (up to 5,000 years). Only until recently has the oceanography of antarctic bays and fjords been studied (Domack and Williams in press). Domack and Williams (in press) and Williams (1989) show that a complex interplay of processes control the oceanographic circulation, and hence fine sediment distribution in the glacially influenced bays and fjords of the Antarctic Peninsula. The data used in this study include 61 sediment samples collected from Admiralty Bay, King George Island, south to Marguerite Bay (figure 1). Surface sediment samples were preserved upon collection for identification of living (protoplasmcontaining) and dead benthic foraminiferal assemblages. The samples were further processed, using standard techniques, and the greater than 63 micron size fraction was analyzed for benthic foraminifera at Ohio State University. A total of 102 benthic foraminiferal species were identified in this study. This included calcareous benthic and agglutinated taxa. Canonical discriminant analysis of the assemblages defined four faunas that were geographically distinct: Archi1989 REVIEW
pelago Bays fauna, Peninsula Coast Bays fauna, Marguerite Bay fauna, and Strait (Gerlache and Bransfield) fauna (figure 2). The latter two faunas were dominated by agglutinated taxa (greater than 65 percent). Percent calcareous benthic foraminifera versus depth shows an abrupt decrease in calcareous taxa at depths greater than 1,000 meters in Marguerite Bay and the Gerlache and Bransfield straits, suggesting calcium carbonate undersaturation of the bottom waters below this depth. These faunas are distinguished from each other based on the high abundance of Pseudoboliviva antarctica (Wiesner), Textulana tenuissima Earland, and T. wiesneri Earland from Marguerite Bay, and dominance of Hal lopliraginoides parkerae (Uchio) from the Gerlache and Bransfield straits. This distinction of the faunal compositions between Marguerite Bay and the straits suggest particular bottom-water masses controlling these faunas, possibly associated with Bellingshausen Sea and Bransfield Basin resident bottom-water influences, respectively (Gordon and Nowlin 1978). This is in keeping with the deep-water oceanography of the Bransfield Strait observed by Gordon and Nowlin (1978) where the basin bottom waters are unique (lower temperature, salinity, and nutrient concentrations, and better oxygenated than adjacent bottom-water masses) and that the Bellingshausen Sea influence dissipates to the east-northeast. The Archipelago and Peninsula bays faunas are closely associated with each other (overlap illustrated in figure 2b) and very distinct from the Strait and Marguerite Bay faunas. Intercluster correlation of the faunal groups shows that the for-
Figure 1. Map showing the Bellingshausen/Pacific sector of the Antarctic Peninsula and the areas sampled for this study. Archipelago Includes areas 1 and 4; Danco Coast includes Areas 2, 3, and 5; and Marguerite Bay Includes area 6.
121
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Figure 2. Canonical discriminant analysis results defining the major faunal groups with geographic significance along canonical axes 1-3 A and B. Archipelago bays fauna (A), Danco Coast bays fauna (D), Marguerite Bay fauna (M), and Strait fauna (S). C and D. Canonical discriminant analysis results of the bay faunas defining the Inner-(I), Mid-(M), and Outer-bay (0) biofacies.
mer two groups (Archipelago and Peninsula) have the highest correlation coefficients ( R 2 = 0.86). Figure 2a-b illustrates the discrimination of the faunas along canonical axes 1-2 (that account for 98 percent of the variance). Axis 1 clearly separates the Marguerite Bay (M) and Strait (5) faunal groups, as well as the Archipelago (A) and Peninsula (D) groups from the Marguerite Bay group. The Archipelago and Peninsula faunas are discriminated from the Strait fauna along canonical axis 2. Finally, axis 3 is significant in separating the Archipelago and Peninsula faunal groups. Figure 2b illustrates, however, the overlap that exists between these two groups suggested by the high intercluster correlation described above. This is not an unexpected result considering that some of the Archipelago bay sites are only spacially separated from the Peninsula bay sites (Danco Coast) by the Gerlache Strait (approximately 31 kilometers), and that the geographic configurations of these bays (depth, relative surface area, etc.) are similar. Distinct benthic foraminiferal biofacies were recognized for the Archipelago and Peninsula bays (figure 2c-d). These biofacies represent Inner-, Mid-, and Outer-bay facies. Average species richness (number of species present) values for each biofacies are 19.94 (Inner-bay), 27.76 (Mid-bay), and 27.00 (Outerbay) indicating a significant (39 percent) increase in diversity 122
from the Inner- to Outer-bay. Average number of living benthic foraminifera per cubic centimeter of sediment processed ranges from 48.9 individuals per cubic centimeter (Inner bay) to 168.2 individuals per cubic centimeter (Mid bay). Species dominance differentiates each biofacies. Species common to these biofacies are Fursenkoina spp. The Inner-bay biofacies (I) is characterized by a significant abundance (greater than 10 percent) of Gbbocassidulina subgbohosa (Brady) and Cibicides bobatulus (Walker and Jacob). The Mid-bay biofacies is marked by the occurrence of Bolivina pseudopunctata Hoglund, P. antarctica (Parr), T. wiesneri, T. ten uissiina, Epistoininella exigua (Brady), and Trochainininella bullata Hoglund. The Outer-bay biofacies is distinguished by the abundance of Reophax subdentabiniforinis (Parr) and Trochaininina cf. intermedia Rhumbler, and the paucity of G. subglohosa. The biofacies patterns, from Inner- to Outer-hay, have a positive correlation with increasing distance from ice fronts, and mud and organic carbon content of the surface sediments. Bottom-water salinity, temperature, and dissolved oxygen conditions show very little variation between these regions and, therefore, are of secondary importance to the distribution of the bay benthic foraminifera. Surface productivity plays a significant role in the production of organic carbon. DeMaster et al. (1987) show that in the ANTARCTIC JOURNAL
Bransfield Strait, up to 10 percent of the organic carbon generated in the surface waters is preserved in the surface sediments. The association of benthic foraminiferal biofacies with organic carbon distribution provides a proxy for tracing changes in productivity patterns. This relationship between surface productivity and benthic foraminiferal distribution has been demonstrated in several low-latitude studies (Berger and Diester-Haass 1988; Gooday 1988; Loubere 1988; Phleger and Soutar 1973, to name a few). Surface productivity (mainly diatom blooms) in the southern high latitudes is a function of annual sea-ice and semi-permanent ice-shelf conditions (Smith and Nelson 1986). Ice conditions, and primary productivity and its transformation to the substrate (as organic carbon) are dependent on local and regional climatic and oceanographic conditions. It is suggested here that the distributions of the benthic foraminifera provide a proxy record of surface productivity and are, therefore, a useful tool for paleoclimatic and paleoceanographic reconstruction for the Antarctic Peninsula region; however, much more study of the various flux rates and physical oceanographic conditions, in tandem with sediment analyses, needs to be conducted in order to formulate precise models on the interaction between the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. This work was supported in part by National Science Foundation grants DPP 85-16908 to John B. Anderson and DPP 8517625 to Peter N. Webb as part of my Ph.D. research at the Ohio State University under Peter N. Webb. Additional funding was provided through a Shell Doctoral Fellowship to the author. I would like to gratefully acknowledge the crews of the USCGC Glacier and RIV Polar Duke and those members of the scientific parties associated with those cruises. Special thanks to John B. Anderson for providing me with the opportunity to participate. Finally, thanks go to Dennis S. Cassidy of the Antarctic Research Facility at Florida State University for his helpful advice and cooperation with sample procurement.
Heat-flow measurements in the King George Basin, Bransfield Strait SEIIcHI NAGIHARA* and
LAWRENCE A. LAWyER
Institute for Geophysics University of Texas at Austin Austin, Texas 78759-8345
During R'V Polar Duke PD-IV-89 cruise, we conducted a marine heat-flow survey in the King George Basin (62°20'S 57°45'W) of Bransfield Strait. Our objective was to investigate the tectonic history of this basin and the presumed occurrence of hydrothermal activity. We collected thermal gradient data at * Also at Department of Geological Sciences, University of Texas at Austin.
1989 REVIEW
References
Anderson, J.B., D.D. Kurtz, E.W. Domack, and K.M. Balshaw. 1980. Glacial and glacial marine sediments of the Antarctic continental shelf. Journal of Geology, 88, 399-414. Berger, W.H., and L. Diester-Haass. 1988. Paleoproductivity: The benthic/planktonic ratio in foraminifera as a productivity index. Marine Geology, 81, 15-25. DeMaster, D.J., T.M. Nelson, C.A. Nittrouer, and S.L. Harden. 1987. Biogenic silica and organic carbon accumulation in modern Bransfield Strait sediments. Antarctic Journal of the U.S., 22(5), 108-110. Domack, E.W., and C.R. Williams. In press. Fine-structure and suspended sediment transport in three antarctic fjords. Antarctic Research Series, (Annual Volume) Washington, D.C.: American Geophysical Union. Gooday, A.J. 1988. A response by benthic foraminifera to the deposition of phytodetritus in the deep sea. Nature, 332, 70-73. Gordon, A.L., and W.D. Nowlin, Jr. 1978. The basin waters of the Bransfield Strait. Journal of Physical Oceanography, 8, 258-264. Griffith, T.W., and J.B. Anderson. 1989. Climatic controls on sedimentation in bays and fjords of the northern Antarctic Peninsula. Marine Geology, 85, 181-204. Kennedy, D.S., and J.B. Anderson. 1989. Glacial-marine sedimentation and Quaternary glacial history of Marguerite Bay, Antarctic Peninsula. Quaternaril Research, 31, 255-276. Loubere, P. 1988. Deep ocean benthic foraminifera assemblage response to a surface ocean productivity gradient. Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs, 20(7), A69. Phleger, F.B., and A. Soutar. 1973. Production of benthic foraminif era in three east Pacific oxygen minima. Micropaleontology, 19(1), 110115. Smith, W.O., and D.M. Nelson. 1986. The importance of ice-edge phytoplankton production in the Southern Ocean. Bioscience, 36, 251-257. Williams, C . R. 1989. Temperature and sediment characteristics of a subpolar fiord: Cierva Cove, Antarctica. (BA. Thesis, Hamilton College, Clinton, New York.)
54 stations and in situ thermal conductivity data at 22 of those stations. Piston cores were taken at six sites and were used for thermal conductivity measurements made on board using the needle-probe technique (Von Herzen and Maxwell 1959). In conjunction with the heat-flow survey, seismic surveys were made with the 3.5-kilohertz echo sounder and the single-channel seismic reflection system which used a 100-cubic-inch water gun. Throughout the King George Basin, the sea floor is flat (1,960-1,990 meters) and well sedimented although no basement structure could be seen. Our new heat-flow probe (Nagihara et al. in preparation) which was first used on this cruise, combines precision with efficiency. It consists of three outrigger-bows, each 1.5 meters in length and 6.4 millimeters in diameter, spirally mounted on a 5-meter-long strength member (figure 1). Each outrigger-bow sensor string contains four equally spaced thermistors and a heater wire which uses the pulse-heating method (Lister 1979) to measure in situ thermal conductivity. The thermistors are spaced at a 30-centimeter interval for the bottom (number 1) bow and at a 25-centimeter interval for the middle (number 2) and upper (number 3) bows. The 12 thermistors from the three sensor strings cover a 3-meter depth interval. The use of mul123
