PHI 1101 P Reasoning and Critical Thinking
PHI 1101 P Reasoning and Critical Thinking Chapter 2 – Language •
What is language?
•
A tool of communication
•
A system of symbols
•
A form of behaviour
•
Language has meaning and use, grammar (rules of use), and it requires a context (consider the metaphor ‘You were offered a pig in a poke!’)
•
Ambiguity and vagueness are part and parcel of language!
•
Ambiguity: when a word has more than one precise meaning/interpretation and we are not sure which meaning is being used in a given statement?
•
Vagueness: when a word doesn’t have a precise meaning/interpretation
•
To avoid ambiguity and vagueness, we have created specialized technical languages, such as legal, computer, scientific language, etc. known as jargon
•
Ex. “Crash” is a total loss of computer programs and data
•
Ex. “BASIC” stands for “Beginner’s All-Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code”
•
Ex. “Mojo” stands for the sexual power of Austin Powers
•
Politically correct language: descriptive and evaluate words Terrorists – freedom words Well-known – renowned/distinguished/notorious Deaf/crippled-disabled Poor/economically challenged Secretary – personal assistant
•
Ordinary language: our everyday/ common language
•
Ordinary language reformers: Luce Irigaray
The way we speak determines the way we think: so, ordinary language has to be
reformed. Ordinary language can be disambiguated if we are careful about its use Example: ‘illusion’, ‘delusion’, and ‘hallucination’ C.L. Stevenson: our understanding of morality depends on our understanding of
the word ‘good’ •
The ‘logic of language’ Ludwig Wittengenstein: ordinary language is too vague and ambiguous and we
should reduce it to its foundation, logic (the set of rules that govern reasoning) Ex. ‘There is nothing outside’ vs. ‘There is not a thing that is outside’ The moral: language is a difficult tool that needs constant maintenance A way to do that: try to give precise definitions of the word we use •
A definition: an explanation of the meaning of a word
•
The meaning of the word is the set of rules or conditions that govern its use
•
A definition allows us to distinguish one word from another as well as to understand how to use new words
•
Sense is known as connotation of the word and it is what we understand when we understand the meaning of a word
•
Reference or denotation is the class of things that the word belongs to
•
The word ‘plate’ means a flat dish for servicing food. And it refers to the class of all such objects in the world, past, present, and future
•
All words have sense but not all have reference
•
Words such as ‘the’, ‘unlike’, etc. do not have reference
Some Basic Terms: •
Idea: anything that our mind produces
•
Thought: an organization of ideas
•
Ideal: a perfect, desirable example of something
•
Concept: a general abstract, idea
•
Reason: 1) a motive, 2) the rational part of our mind through which we reason, 3) cause
•
Value: a principle/moral standard according to which groups of people lead
•
Belief: 1) faith, 2) confidence, 3) opinion
•
Norm: a standard of behavior that we can reasonably expect from people
•
Convention: the customs or practices established by a culture
•
Principle: personal or objective law of action or theory
•
Rule: a more rigid/strict principle
•
Vagueness: the lack of precise meaning Vagueness is not always undesirable! Ex: I have other plans for tonight (deliberately vague).
•
Ambiguity: when two or more precise meanings are conflated and/or confused Ambiguity is always to be avoided!
•
Three types of ambiguity: Referential: occurs when the referring word or phrase can be interpreted as
pointing to more than one thing This may result in two things: either the other person is confused about which
thing we’re referring to ((‘your keys is on the table’) but which table?), or the other person believes that we’re referring to the wrong thing Ex. The keys are always in the last place you look. (the last place to look or the
last place you in fact looked) Ex. Ms. Leigh was reportedly upset upon hearing that Alfred Hitchcock had
wanted a much bigger actress for the role she played in Psycho (size or stardom?) Grammatical: occurs when the grammatical structure of a sentence allows two or
more interpretations and it is not clear from the context which meaning is intended. Ex. Court upholds man’s right to die in California. (dangling modifier) (Move and
die in California or euthanasia?)
Ex. Your dog may have kidney problems. If her kidneys check out fine, then you
should restrict her water intake, but I would advise this after 7 p.m. (dangling modifier) (waiting for tests at 7 p.m. or restrict intake till 7 p.m.?) Ex. Newspaper headline in the science section. How Do Insects Smell? (Scent of
insects or insects’ ability to smell?) Ex. Newspaper headline: Lucky man sees pals die. (Lucky to survive or lucky to
see his pals die?) Use and mention: confusion between the mention of the word (its function
within the sentence) and its use (the meaning of the word) It has often to do with the improper/lack of use of punctuation Ex. ‘Tom said I was angry’ vs. ‘Tom said. “I was angry”’. Ex. ‘Sophie is Bulgarian’ vs. ‘”Sophie” is Bulgarian’.
Exercises: Ambiguous Statements: What type of ambiguity is present in each of the following statements?
•
1. Sally told Laura that she had forgotten her keys. The ambiguity is referential with the word ‘she’.
•
2. All my residents don’t live in Halifax. The problem is referential with the words “don’t” and ‘All’. As in ‘none’ or ‘some’?
•
3. Fred gives Arnold a hand. This problem is referential since the statement could be metaphorical or literal (‘give a hand’).
•
4. He is a ‘Spanish History’ teacher. Use and mention, since it isn’t clear whether it’s about the teacher’s heritage or the subject matter is Spanish history.
•
5. Visiting relatives can be boring. Not clear whether visiting relatives is boring or the relatives themselves are boring. This ambiguity is grammatical.
•
6. Local high school dropouts cut in half. The number of students decreased (rate) or the former students were physically cut in half (persons). This ambiguity is referential.
•
7. I’m going to paint those walls grey and green. Two different walls or each wall being painted both colours? This ambiguity is referential.
•
8. Written on a poster campaigning against child obesity. ‘It’s hard to be a little girl when you are not.”. The phrase ‘little girl’ (matter of size or weight). This is referential.
•
9. ‘Huge kids sale in the Glebe. May 8, 2012.’ Human trafficking or massive sale intended for kids? This ambiguity is use and mention/referential.
•
10. An e-mail the professor sent to a student: ‘If you don’t hear from me otherwise, do not come to our class at 5 p.m.’. Don’t come to the 5 p.m. class or come to the class at a different time period? This ambiguity is grammatical.
•
11. Look at the big family on the other side of the mall. Large number of people in the family or the body size/weight of the family? The ambiguity is referential.
Are the following statements ambiguous or vague? Is the vagueness benign or malicious?
•
1. Man is born free. – Ambiguous (males or mankind?)
•
2. Suicide, whether direct or indirect, should be strongly condemned. – vague (malicious)
•
3. The war on poverty was no war. – Ambiguous (military action or metaphor?)
•
4. ‘Fine for parking’, sign on a street in Seattle. – Ambiguous (Ok to park or penalty?)
•
5. The public school system cannot treat children equally; they come to the school unequal in talent, experience, and family background. – Ambiguous (equally with respect or equally with capability?)
•
6. The party last night went until all hours. – vague (benign)
•
7. Applicants must hold a diploma in ethics or have equivalent work experience. – vague (malicious)
•
8. Wife accusing husband: ‘You never put the books back in their spots on the shelf!’ – vague (benign)
•
9. Informal logic is best described as a travel guide to the world of correct reasoning. – vague (malicious)
•
10. Truth is the shadow that existence casts across the realm of essences, (George Santayana, Skepticism and Animal Faith). – vague (malicious)
•
11. Money is the root of all evil. – vague (malicious)
Descriptive – evaluative meaning
•
1. Max is lazy. (evaluative)
•
Max is laid-back. (descriptive)
•
2. Arnold is close-minded. (evaluative)
•
Arnold is steadfast in his views. (descriptive)
•
3. Seymour is stingy. (evaluative)
•
Seymour is careful with money. (descriptive)
What is language?
•
A tool of communication
•
A system of symbols
•
A form of behaviour
•
Language has meaning and use, grammar (rules of use), and it requires a context (consider the metaphor ‘You were offered a pig in a poke!’)
•
Ambiguity and vagueness are part and parcel of language!
•
Ambiguity: when a word has more than one precise meaning/interpretation and we are not sure which meaning is being used in a given statement?
•
Vagueness: when a word doesn’t have a precise meaning/interpretation
•
To avoid ambiguity and vagueness, we have created specialized technical languages, such as legal, computer, scientific language, etc. known as jargon
•
Ex. “Crash” is a total loss of computer programs and data
•
Ex. “BASIC” stands for “Beginner’s All-Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code”
•
Ex. “Mojo” stands for the sexual power of Austin Powers
•
Politically correct language: descriptive and evaluate words Terrorists – freedom words Well-known – renowned/distinguished/notorious Deaf/crippled-disabled Poor/economically challenged Secretary – personal assistant
•
Ordinary language: our everyday/ common language
•
Ordinary language reformers: Luce Irigaray
The way we speak determines the way we think: so, ordinary language has to be
reformed. Ordinary language can be disambiguated if we are careful about its use Example: ‘illusion’, ‘delusion’, and ‘hallucination’ C.L. Stevenson: our understanding of morality depends on our understanding of
the word ‘good’ •
The ‘logic of language’ Ludwig Wittengenstein: ordinary language is too vague and ambiguous and we
should reduce it to its foundation, logic (the set of rules that govern reasoning) Ex. ‘There is nothing outside’ vs. ‘There is not a thing that is outside’ The moral: language is a difficult tool that needs constant maintenance A way to do that: try to give precise definitions of the word we use •
A definition: an explanation of the meaning of a word
•
The meaning of the word is the set of rules or conditions that govern its use
•
A definition allows us to distinguish one word from another as well as to understand how to use new words
•
Sense is known as connotation of the word and it is what we understand when we understand the meaning of a word
•
Reference or denotation is the class of things that the word belongs to
•
The word ‘plate’ means a flat dish for servicing food. And it refers to the class of all such objects in the world, past, present, and future
•
All words have sense but not all have reference
•
Words such as ‘the’, ‘unlike’, etc. do not have reference
Some Basic Terms: •
Idea: anything that our mind produces
•
Thought: an organization of ideas
•
Ideal: a perfect, desirable example of something
•
Concept: a general abstract, idea
•
Reason: 1) a motive, 2) the rational part of our mind through which we reason, 3) cause
•
Value: a principle/moral standard according to which groups of people lead
•
Belief: 1) faith, 2) confidence, 3) opinion
•
Norm: a standard of behavior that we can reasonably expect from people
•
Convention: the customs or practices established by a culture
•
Principle: personal or objective law of action or theory
•
Rule: a more rigid/strict principle
•
Vagueness: the lack of precise meaning Vagueness is not always undesirable! Ex: I have other plans for tonight (deliberately vague).
•
Ambiguity: when two or more precise meanings are conflated and/or confused Ambiguity is always to be avoided!
•
Three types of ambiguity: Referential: occurs when the referring word or phrase can be interpreted as
pointing to more than one thing This may result in two things: either the other person is confused about which
thing we’re referring to ((‘your keys is on the table’) but which table?), or the other person believes that we’re referring to the wrong thing Ex. The keys are always in the last place you look. (the last place to look or the
last place you in fact looked) Ex. Ms. Leigh was reportedly upset upon hearing that Alfred Hitchcock had
wanted a much bigger actress for the role she played in Psycho (size or stardom?) Grammatical: occurs when the grammatical structure of a sentence allows two or
more interpretations and it is not clear from the context which meaning is intended. Ex. Court upholds man’s right to die in California. (dangling modifier) (Move and
die in California or euthanasia?)
Ex. Your dog may have kidney problems. If her kidneys check out fine, then you
should restrict her water intake, but I would advise this after 7 p.m. (dangling modifier) (waiting for tests at 7 p.m. or restrict intake till 7 p.m.?) Ex. Newspaper headline in the science section. How Do Insects Smell? (Scent of
insects or insects’ ability to smell?) Ex. Newspaper headline: Lucky man sees pals die. (Lucky to survive or lucky to
see his pals die?) Use and mention: confusion between the mention of the word (its function
within the sentence) and its use (the meaning of the word) It has often to do with the improper/lack of use of punctuation Ex. ‘Tom said I was angry’ vs. ‘Tom said. “I was angry”’. Ex. ‘Sophie is Bulgarian’ vs. ‘”Sophie” is Bulgarian’.
Exercises: Ambiguous Statements: What type of ambiguity is present in each of the following statements?
•
1. Sally told Laura that she had forgotten her keys. The ambiguity is referential with the word ‘she’.
•
2. All my residents don’t live in Halifax. The problem is referential with the words “don’t” and ‘All’. As in ‘none’ or ‘some’?
•
3. Fred gives Arnold a hand. This problem is referential since the statement could be metaphorical or literal (‘give a hand’).
•
4. He is a ‘Spanish History’ teacher. Use and mention, since it isn’t clear whether it’s about the teacher’s heritage or the subject matter is Spanish history.
•
5. Visiting relatives can be boring. Not clear whether visiting relatives is boring or the relatives themselves are boring. This ambiguity is grammatical.
•
6. Local high school dropouts cut in half. The number of students decreased (rate) or the former students were physically cut in half (persons). This ambiguity is referential.
•
7. I’m going to paint those walls grey and green. Two different walls or each wall being painted both colours? This ambiguity is referential.
•
8. Written on a poster campaigning against child obesity. ‘It’s hard to be a little girl when you are not.”. The phrase ‘little girl’ (matter of size or weight). This is referential.
•
9. ‘Huge kids sale in the Glebe. May 8, 2012.’ Human trafficking or massive sale intended for kids? This ambiguity is use and mention/referential.
•
10. An e-mail the professor sent to a student: ‘If you don’t hear from me otherwise, do not come to our class at 5 p.m.’. Don’t come to the 5 p.m. class or come to the class at a different time period? This ambiguity is grammatical.
•
11. Look at the big family on the other side of the mall. Large number of people in the family or the body size/weight of the family? The ambiguity is referential.
Are the following statements ambiguous or vague? Is the vagueness benign or malicious?
•
1. Man is born free. – Ambiguous (males or mankind?)
•
2. Suicide, whether direct or indirect, should be strongly condemned. – vague (malicious)
•
3. The war on poverty was no war. – Ambiguous (military action or metaphor?)
•
4. ‘Fine for parking’, sign on a street in Seattle. – Ambiguous (Ok to park or penalty?)
•
5. The public school system cannot treat children equally; they come to the school unequal in talent, experience, and family background. – Ambiguous (equally with respect or equally with capability?)
•
6. The party last night went until all hours. – vague (benign)
•
7. Applicants must hold a diploma in ethics or have equivalent work experience. – vague (malicious)
•
8. Wife accusing husband: ‘You never put the books back in their spots on the shelf!’ – vague (benign)
•
9. Informal logic is best described as a travel guide to the world of correct reasoning. – vague (malicious)
•
10. Truth is the shadow that existence casts across the realm of essences, (George Santayana, Skepticism and Animal Faith). – vague (malicious)
•
11. Money is the root of all evil. – vague (malicious)
Descriptive – evaluative meaning
•
1. Max is lazy. (evaluative)
•
Max is laid-back. (descriptive)
•
2. Arnold is close-minded. (evaluative)
•
Arnold is steadfast in his views. (descriptive)
•
3. Seymour is stingy. (evaluative)
•
Seymour is careful with money. (descriptive)
