1 SOSC -3993 Chapter 1: Doing Social Research (Textbook Notes ...
SOSC -3993 Chapter 1: Doing Social Research (Textbook Notes) Introduction People conduct social research to learn something new about the social world; document guesses, hunches, beliefs; or refine their understanding on how the world works. Researchers combine theories or ideas with facts in a systematic way. Learn to organize and plan, and to select the appropriate techniques to address a specific kind of question. Researchers must treat the people in the study in ethical and moral ways. Researchers must fully and clearly communicate the results of a study to other. Social research is a process in which people combine a set of principles, outlooks and ideas with a collection of specific practises, techniques and strategies to produce knowledge. Alternatives to Social Research Process of producing knowledge o More structured, organized, and systematic process than the alternatives we use. Knowledge from alternatives is correct , but knowledge based on research is more likely to be true with fewer errors Authority Accept something to be true because someone in a position of authority says it to be true/ because it is in an alternative publication, you are relying on authority on a basis of knowledge. Authorities often spend time and effort to learn something and you can benefit from their experience and work. Limitation to relying on authorities 1. Easy to overestimate the expertise of other people; we may assume they are right when they are wrong. 2. Authorities may not agree, and all authorities may not be equally dependable. 3. Authorities may speak on fields they know little about or be wrong. Also known as the halo effect. Misuse of authority o Sometimes organizations or individuals give an appearance of authority so they can convince others to agree to something that they might not otherwise agree to. o Experts may promote ideas that strengthen their own power and position. Tradition Tradition is a special case of authority- authority of the past. Tradition means you accept something as being true because it’s the way things have always been. Common sense We know a lot about the social word from our everyday reasoning or common sense Rely on what every one knows and what makes sense, allows logical fallacies to cause us to think Common sense is contradictory Can originate from tradition, can be correct but can contain errors, misinformation, contradiction, and prejudice. Media Myths Television shows, movies and newspaper and magazine articles are important forces of information. They do not accurately reflect social reality. Their primary goal is to entertain, not to represent reality accurately. o Ex. perpetuate the myths of a culture; people on welfare are black, the mentally ill are violent Mass media “hype” can create feeling that a major problem exists when it may not. People are misled by visual images 1
Personal Experience If something happens to you , you believe it to be true, and has a strong impact and is a powerful source of knowledge, but it can lead you astray. 4 errors of personal experience reinforce each other and can occur in other areas and are the basis of misleading people through propaganda, cons frauds, magic, etc. 1. Overgeneralizations, occurs when some evidence support your belief, but you falsely assume that it applies to many other situations to; limited generalization maybe appropriate. 2. Selective observation, occurs when you take a special notice of some people or events and tend to seek out evidence that confirms what you already believe and ignore contradictory information 3. Premature closure occurs when you feel you have the answer and do not need to listen, seek information, or raise questions any longer; reinforces the first 2 errors. 4. Halo effect, is when we overgeneralize from what we accept as being highly positive or prestigious and let its strong reputation or prestige rub off onto other areas. How Science Work Science Natural science deals with the physical and material world, where as social science deals with the study of people Science is a social institution and a way to produce knowledge Scientists gather data using specialized techniques and use the data to support or reject theories. Data are the empirical evidence or information that one gathers carefully according to rules or procedures. o Quantitative expressed as numbers o Qualitative expressed as words, visual images, sounds or objects. Empirical evidences refer to observations that people experience through the senses The Scientific Community The scientific community is a collection of people who practise science and set of norms, behaviours, and attitudes that bind them together; they share ethical principles, beliefs, and values, techniques and training, and career paths. Scientific community are people ( phd’s, scientific occupations) who do the research and studies on a fulltime or part time basis, with assistants who are undergraduate or graduate students. The Scientific Method and Attitude Scientific method refers to the ideas, rules, techniques, and approaches that the scientific community uses. Journal Articles in Science Detailed description of study and results Oral presentation of study Researchers sends to several editors of scholarly journals Editors removes authors name on title page and sends to reviewers who study the same topic Reviewers evaluate the research based on its clarity , originality, standards of good research methods, and advancing knowledge This is done to ensure quality control
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Steps in the Research Process
Dimensions of Research 1. How research is used, applied or basic research. 2. Purpose of doing research, the goal 3. How time is incorporated into the study design 4. Specific data collection technique used Use of Research Basic Research Basic social research advances fundamental knowledge about the social world. Basic researchers focus on refuting or supporting theories that explain how the social world operates, what makes things happen, why social relations are a certain way, and why society changes. Is the source of most new scientific ideas and ways of thinking about the world Lacks practical applications in the short term, provides a foundation for knowledge that advances understanding in various areas. Is the source of most tools, methods, theories, and ideas about underlying causes of how people act or think used by applied researchers Provides major breakthroughs that significant advances in knowledge, painstaking study of broad questions that has the potential of shifting how we think about issues Applied Research Applied research is designed to address a specific concern or to offer solutions to a problem identified by an employer, club, agency, social movement, or organization. Researchers are rarely concerned with building, testing, or connecting to a larger theory, developing long term general understanding or carrying out a large scale investigation Conduct a quick , small scale study that provides practical results for the use in the short term People are employed in businesses, governments offices, health care facilities, social service agencies, etc Scientific community primary consumer of basic research Consumers of applied research finding are practitioners such as teacher, counsellors, etc Applied research results are less likely to enter public domain, meaning tis not widely disseminated. Decision makers may use the results or not because of the problems with the study’s methodology, especially with controversial issues. o Basic researchers emphasize high methodological standards and try to conduct near perfect research 3
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Applied research make more trade offs.
Types of Applied Research Evaluation Research Study Is a widely used, applied research designed to find out whether a program, a way of doing something, marketing campaign, policies etc, are effective Used in large bureaucratic organizations ( schools, businesses, ect.)to demonstrate the effectiveness of what they are doing Difference is, decision makers who may not be researchers, define the scope an purpose of the research Objective to use results in a practical situation. Use several techniques such as surveys and field, experimental techniques are usually preferred Evaluation may be conducted by the institution themselves or at the request of a decision maker Decision makers may place limits on what can be studied thus causing ethical dilemmas Ethical and political issues often arise because people can have opposing interests and findings. Several limitations: o Reports of research rarely go through peer review o Raw data are rarely publically available o Focus is narrowed to select inputs and outputs more than the full process by which a program affects peoples lives. Action Research Study Is applied research that treats knowledge as a form of power and abolishes the division between creating knowledge and using knowledge to engage in political action. o Several types of action research, but share 5 characteristics: 1. The people being studied actively participate in the research process 2. The research incorporates ordinary or popular knowledge 3. The research focuses on issues of power 4. The research seeks to raise consciousness or increase awareness of issues 5. The research is tied directly to a plan or program of political action Tends to be associated with social movements, political cause, etc. Social Impact Assessment Research Study Researcher who conducts social impact assessment estimates the likely consequences of a planned intervention or intentional change to occur in the future. May be part of a larger environmental impact statement required by government agencies and used for planning and making choices among alternatives policies. Forecasts how aspects of the social environment may change and suggest ways to mitigate changes. Impacts are the difference btwn a forecast of the future with the project or policy and without the project or policy. Examine a range of social outcomes Outcomes include; o Measuring “quality of life” issues Access to healthcare Illegal drug and alcohol use Employment opportunities School quality Teen pregnancy Etc
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Purpose of study Exploration Researchers examine a new area to formulate précises questions that he or she can address in the future research. Maybe the first stage in a sequence study. Researcher may need to conduct an exploratory studying order to know enough to design and execute a second more systematic and extensive study. o Ex. Many higher education officials are concerned about college students low retention rates especially student from minority disadvantages social backgrounds Ex latinos who enroll 80% leave with out graduating Official seek ways to reduce dropout and increase chances to stay Teaching quality and university service related issues, many students had personal issues and family responsibilities contributing to the dropout. Description Research presents a picture of the specific detail of a situation. Researchers use most data gathering techniques, such as surveys, field research, content analysis, and historical comparative research. Found in scholarly journals or policy making decisions. Researchers begin with a well-defined subject and conduct a study to describe it accurately, and the outcome is a detailed picture of the subject. o Ex, percentage of people who possess a certain behaviour 8% of parents who physically or sexually abuse their children. Explanation
Identifies the sources of social behaviours, beliefs, conditions , and events; it documents the causes, tests theories, and provides reasons Builds on exploratory and descriptive research o Ex. Exploratory discovers a new type of abuse by parents. o Descriptive researchers; document that 10 % of parents abuse their children in this new way and describes the kinds of parents and conditions for which it is most frequent. o Explanatory researchers; focus on why certain parents are abusing their children in this manner
Time Dimensions in Research Cross- Sectional Research Examine a single point in time or rake a one time snapshot approach Simplest and least costly Cannot capture social processes or change Consistent with descriptive approach Longitudinal Research Examine features of people or other units at more than one time More complex and costly, but more powerful and costly Descriptive and explanatory researchers use longitudinal approaches Longitudinal Approaches: o Time Series Study Researcher gathers the same type of information across two or more time periods. Observe stability or change in the features of the units or can track conditions over time. 5
o Panel Study Researcher observes exactly the same people, group or organization across multiple time points More difficult to conduct than time series. Formidable to conduct and very costly. Tracking people is hard because people die and some cannot be located. o Cohort Study Similar to panel study, but instead of observing same people the study focuses on a category of people who share similar life experience in a specified time period. Researchers examine the category as a whole for important features and focus on the cohort or category not on a specific individual. People born in the same year, people hired at the same time, people who graduate in a given year. Case Studies Researcher examines in depth many features of a few cases over duration of time with very detailed, varied, and extensive data, often in a qualitative form. Researchers carefully select a few key cases to illustrate an issue and study it in detail and consider the specific content of each case. Data Collection Techniques
Quantitative Data Collection Techniques o Experiments Experimental research closely follows the logic and principles found in natural science research; researchers create situations and examine their effects on participants Conducts experiments in labs or in real life with a small number of people, and well focusd research question. Ex. Researcher divides the people into 2 or more groups. Treats both the same but gives one group a condition, interested in the treatment. Measures both groups, and makes a conclusion. o Surveys Widely used technique where researcher asks people questions in a written questionnaire or during an interview and records the answer, usually a small group Summarizes the answers to the questions in percentages, tables, or graphs. Used in descriptive or explanatory research. o Content Analysis Examining information or content in a written or symbolic material Researcher first identifies a body of material to analyze and then creates a system for recording specific aspects of it. Measures information in the content as numbers and presents it as tables and graphs. Used in exploratory and explanatory, primarily for descriptive.
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o Existing Statistics Researchers locates previously collected information, often in the form of government reports or previously conducted surveys the reorganizes or combines the information n new ways to address a research question. Time consuming, researcher does not know if info is available Can be used for exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory purposes frequently for descriptive.
Qualitative Data Collection Techniques o Field Research Conduct case studies looking at small group of people over a length of time Begins with a formulated idea, selects social group, or natural setting for study, gains access and adopts a social role in the setting and observes. Gets to know the people personally and may conduct open ended and formal interviews and takes notes, and prepares a report. Often used for exploratory and descriptive studies. o Historical Comparative Research Researcher examine aspects of social life in a past historical era or across different cultures. May focus on one historical period or several, compare one or more cultures. Collects data (statistics, documents, interviews) with a loosely formulated question that is refined during the process. Used in exploratory descriptive, and explanatory.
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Personal Experience If something happens to you , you believe it to be true, and has a strong impact and is a powerful source of knowledge, but it can lead you astray. 4 errors of personal experience reinforce each other and can occur in other areas and are the basis of misleading people through propaganda, cons frauds, magic, etc. 1. Overgeneralizations, occurs when some evidence support your belief, but you falsely assume that it applies to many other situations to; limited generalization maybe appropriate. 2. Selective observation, occurs when you take a special notice of some people or events and tend to seek out evidence that confirms what you already believe and ignore contradictory information 3. Premature closure occurs when you feel you have the answer and do not need to listen, seek information, or raise questions any longer; reinforces the first 2 errors. 4. Halo effect, is when we overgeneralize from what we accept as being highly positive or prestigious and let its strong reputation or prestige rub off onto other areas. How Science Work Science Natural science deals with the physical and material world, where as social science deals with the study of people Science is a social institution and a way to produce knowledge Scientists gather data using specialized techniques and use the data to support or reject theories. Data are the empirical evidence or information that one gathers carefully according to rules or procedures. o Quantitative expressed as numbers o Qualitative expressed as words, visual images, sounds or objects. Empirical evidences refer to observations that people experience through the senses The Scientific Community The scientific community is a collection of people who practise science and set of norms, behaviours, and attitudes that bind them together; they share ethical principles, beliefs, and values, techniques and training, and career paths. Scientific community are people ( phd’s, scientific occupations) who do the research and studies on a fulltime or part time basis, with assistants who are undergraduate or graduate students. The Scientific Method and Attitude Scientific method refers to the ideas, rules, techniques, and approaches that the scientific community uses. Journal Articles in Science Detailed description of study and results Oral presentation of study Researchers sends to several editors of scholarly journals Editors removes authors name on title page and sends to reviewers who study the same topic Reviewers evaluate the research based on its clarity , originality, standards of good research methods, and advancing knowledge This is done to ensure quality control
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Steps in the Research Process
Dimensions of Research 1. How research is used, applied or basic research. 2. Purpose of doing research, the goal 3. How time is incorporated into the study design 4. Specific data collection technique used Use of Research Basic Research Basic social research advances fundamental knowledge about the social world. Basic researchers focus on refuting or supporting theories that explain how the social world operates, what makes things happen, why social relations are a certain way, and why society changes. Is the source of most new scientific ideas and ways of thinking about the world Lacks practical applications in the short term, provides a foundation for knowledge that advances understanding in various areas. Is the source of most tools, methods, theories, and ideas about underlying causes of how people act or think used by applied researchers Provides major breakthroughs that significant advances in knowledge, painstaking study of broad questions that has the potential of shifting how we think about issues Applied Research Applied research is designed to address a specific concern or to offer solutions to a problem identified by an employer, club, agency, social movement, or organization. Researchers are rarely concerned with building, testing, or connecting to a larger theory, developing long term general understanding or carrying out a large scale investigation Conduct a quick , small scale study that provides practical results for the use in the short term People are employed in businesses, governments offices, health care facilities, social service agencies, etc Scientific community primary consumer of basic research Consumers of applied research finding are practitioners such as teacher, counsellors, etc Applied research results are less likely to enter public domain, meaning tis not widely disseminated. Decision makers may use the results or not because of the problems with the study’s methodology, especially with controversial issues. o Basic researchers emphasize high methodological standards and try to conduct near perfect research 3
o
Applied research make more trade offs.
Types of Applied Research Evaluation Research Study Is a widely used, applied research designed to find out whether a program, a way of doing something, marketing campaign, policies etc, are effective Used in large bureaucratic organizations ( schools, businesses, ect.)to demonstrate the effectiveness of what they are doing Difference is, decision makers who may not be researchers, define the scope an purpose of the research Objective to use results in a practical situation. Use several techniques such as surveys and field, experimental techniques are usually preferred Evaluation may be conducted by the institution themselves or at the request of a decision maker Decision makers may place limits on what can be studied thus causing ethical dilemmas Ethical and political issues often arise because people can have opposing interests and findings. Several limitations: o Reports of research rarely go through peer review o Raw data are rarely publically available o Focus is narrowed to select inputs and outputs more than the full process by which a program affects peoples lives. Action Research Study Is applied research that treats knowledge as a form of power and abolishes the division between creating knowledge and using knowledge to engage in political action. o Several types of action research, but share 5 characteristics: 1. The people being studied actively participate in the research process 2. The research incorporates ordinary or popular knowledge 3. The research focuses on issues of power 4. The research seeks to raise consciousness or increase awareness of issues 5. The research is tied directly to a plan or program of political action Tends to be associated with social movements, political cause, etc. Social Impact Assessment Research Study Researcher who conducts social impact assessment estimates the likely consequences of a planned intervention or intentional change to occur in the future. May be part of a larger environmental impact statement required by government agencies and used for planning and making choices among alternatives policies. Forecasts how aspects of the social environment may change and suggest ways to mitigate changes. Impacts are the difference btwn a forecast of the future with the project or policy and without the project or policy. Examine a range of social outcomes Outcomes include; o Measuring “quality of life” issues Access to healthcare Illegal drug and alcohol use Employment opportunities School quality Teen pregnancy Etc
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Purpose of study Exploration Researchers examine a new area to formulate précises questions that he or she can address in the future research. Maybe the first stage in a sequence study. Researcher may need to conduct an exploratory studying order to know enough to design and execute a second more systematic and extensive study. o Ex. Many higher education officials are concerned about college students low retention rates especially student from minority disadvantages social backgrounds Ex latinos who enroll 80% leave with out graduating Official seek ways to reduce dropout and increase chances to stay Teaching quality and university service related issues, many students had personal issues and family responsibilities contributing to the dropout. Description Research presents a picture of the specific detail of a situation. Researchers use most data gathering techniques, such as surveys, field research, content analysis, and historical comparative research. Found in scholarly journals or policy making decisions. Researchers begin with a well-defined subject and conduct a study to describe it accurately, and the outcome is a detailed picture of the subject. o Ex, percentage of people who possess a certain behaviour 8% of parents who physically or sexually abuse their children. Explanation
Identifies the sources of social behaviours, beliefs, conditions , and events; it documents the causes, tests theories, and provides reasons Builds on exploratory and descriptive research o Ex. Exploratory discovers a new type of abuse by parents. o Descriptive researchers; document that 10 % of parents abuse their children in this new way and describes the kinds of parents and conditions for which it is most frequent. o Explanatory researchers; focus on why certain parents are abusing their children in this manner
Time Dimensions in Research Cross- Sectional Research Examine a single point in time or rake a one time snapshot approach Simplest and least costly Cannot capture social processes or change Consistent with descriptive approach Longitudinal Research Examine features of people or other units at more than one time More complex and costly, but more powerful and costly Descriptive and explanatory researchers use longitudinal approaches Longitudinal Approaches: o Time Series Study Researcher gathers the same type of information across two or more time periods. Observe stability or change in the features of the units or can track conditions over time. 5
o Panel Study Researcher observes exactly the same people, group or organization across multiple time points More difficult to conduct than time series. Formidable to conduct and very costly. Tracking people is hard because people die and some cannot be located. o Cohort Study Similar to panel study, but instead of observing same people the study focuses on a category of people who share similar life experience in a specified time period. Researchers examine the category as a whole for important features and focus on the cohort or category not on a specific individual. People born in the same year, people hired at the same time, people who graduate in a given year. Case Studies Researcher examines in depth many features of a few cases over duration of time with very detailed, varied, and extensive data, often in a qualitative form. Researchers carefully select a few key cases to illustrate an issue and study it in detail and consider the specific content of each case. Data Collection Techniques
Quantitative Data Collection Techniques o Experiments Experimental research closely follows the logic and principles found in natural science research; researchers create situations and examine their effects on participants Conducts experiments in labs or in real life with a small number of people, and well focusd research question. Ex. Researcher divides the people into 2 or more groups. Treats both the same but gives one group a condition, interested in the treatment. Measures both groups, and makes a conclusion. o Surveys Widely used technique where researcher asks people questions in a written questionnaire or during an interview and records the answer, usually a small group Summarizes the answers to the questions in percentages, tables, or graphs. Used in descriptive or explanatory research. o Content Analysis Examining information or content in a written or symbolic material Researcher first identifies a body of material to analyze and then creates a system for recording specific aspects of it. Measures information in the content as numbers and presents it as tables and graphs. Used in exploratory and explanatory, primarily for descriptive.
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o Existing Statistics Researchers locates previously collected information, often in the form of government reports or previously conducted surveys the reorganizes or combines the information n new ways to address a research question. Time consuming, researcher does not know if info is available Can be used for exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory purposes frequently for descriptive.
Qualitative Data Collection Techniques o Field Research Conduct case studies looking at small group of people over a length of time Begins with a formulated idea, selects social group, or natural setting for study, gains access and adopts a social role in the setting and observes. Gets to know the people personally and may conduct open ended and formal interviews and takes notes, and prepares a report. Often used for exploratory and descriptive studies. o Historical Comparative Research Researcher examine aspects of social life in a past historical era or across different cultures. May focus on one historical period or several, compare one or more cultures. Collects data (statistics, documents, interviews) with a loosely formulated question that is refined during the process. Used in exploratory descriptive, and explanatory.
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