Christian Apologetics: Module 1 â Foundations
Introduction to Apologetics: Candidates for Causes and Teleological Arguments
The Cosmological Conclusion Therefore, the Universe has a cause. What could this cause be?
Candidates for Causes? • Abstract Objects • Numbers • Do they exist? • Can they do anything?
• Minds • Non-material • Can choose • Example: God!
Other Related Thoughts Thomas Aquinas • Unmoved Mover • All things in motion have a cause of their motion. • This series of movers cannot regress infinitely. • An original mover must be unmoved (no preceding mover).
• Uncaused Existor • All things caused to exist have a cause of their existence. • This series of causes cannot regress infinitely. • An original cause must be uncaused (no preceding cause).
• Necessary Being • Contingent beings can not exist. • Necessary beings must (and always) exist. • For contingent to exist, a necessary being must exist.
Design of Creatures • Giraffe • Moray Eel • Woodpecker • Owl
Giraffes need to drink…
Moray eels need to eat…
Woodpeckers have to peck…
Owls need to sneak…
The Fine Tuning of the Universe • Laws of Nature • Mathematical equations that describe the relationships between space, time, matter, and energy (all of nature)
• Constants • Unchanging values that appear in the laws of nature
• Initial Values • Initial conditions that are entered into equations of the laws of nature that cause them to match reality
• Fine Tuning • The constants and initial values in the laws of nature that describe the Universe fit into a very narrow range of values that allow the Universe to be life-permitting
Constants The constants characterizing these forces in the equations of the laws of nature are not determined by the laws of nature. Variation of these constants would result in different universes than the one in which we find ourselves. Examples: • • • •
Gravitational force Electromagnetic force Subatomic weak force Subatomic strong force
Initial Values Similar to the constants, the initial conditions are not determined by the laws of nature. Alteration of the initial conditions would result in a drastically different Universe. Examples: • • • •
The initial amount of entropy (or disorder) at the beginning of the Universe The initial homogeneity of the Universe The initial density of the Universe The initial speed of expansion of the Universe
Example of Constants and Initial Values Let 𝑦 be a physical quantity, and let 𝑡 be time The relationship between the two could be: 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑡 + 𝑏 In this example, 𝑎 represents a constant, and 𝑏 represents and initial value
b=2 5
4
3
y 2
1
0 0
1
2
3
4
time a=0
a=0.5
a=1
a=2
5
Changes to the Constants and Initial Values Modification of the gravitation or electromagnetic forces by 1 part in 1040 or Modification of the subatomic weak force by 1 part in 10100 or Modification of the cosmological constant that affects the acceleration of the Universe’s expansion by 1 part in 10120 All of the above would prevent the formation of a life-permitting Universe
Changes to the Constants and Initial Cond. 1 = 0.0000000000000000000000000000000000000001 1040 1 = 0.0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000001 10100 1 = 0.000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000001 10120
The Teleological Argument 1. Things that exhibits complex and specified design have a designer (or designers). 2. The Universe exhibits complex and specified design. 3. Therefore the Universe has a designer (or designers). 𝐴→𝐵 𝐴 ∴𝐵
Design in the Universe It is common experience that design points to the existence of a designer. The fine tuning of the constants and initial conditions are evidence of design. The design in the Universe is best described by a designer.
Candidates for the Designer? • Abstract objects… can do nothing. • Minds… make choices and are creative. GOD!
Another Design Argument 1. The Universe’s fine tuning is either due to physical necessity, chance, or design. 2. The fine tuning is not due to physical necessity or chance. 3. Therefore, the fine tuning is due to design.
Physical Necessity • The laws of nature do not dictate the constants or the initial conditions • A non-life-permitting universe would need to be shown to be impossible, but this has not been done • Certain theories, M-theory in particular, propose that there are 10500 possible universes, all with the same laws of nature but different constants and initial conditions, the vast majority of which are lifeprohibiting; therefore, making life-prohibiting universes more probable
Possible Combinations of the Values Here we go… 10500 = 100,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000, 000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000, 000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000, 000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000, 000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000, 000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000, 000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000
Chance If the constants and initial conditions necessary for life were accidentally obtained: • The odds of 60 the solar system forming by chance collisions of particles is 1 part in 1010 • The odds of 123 the Universe’s initial low entropy state obtaining by chance is 1 part in 1010 However, • There are only 1017 seconds in the history of the Universe and 1080 subatomic particles in the Universe When compared to these values, the probability that the fine tuning arrived by chance is inconceivably low.
The Conclusion Therefore, the fine tuning in the Universe is due to design. What or who could this designer be? GOD!
William Paley’s Watchmaker “In crossing a heath, suppose I pitched my foot against a stone, and were asked how the stone came to be there; I might possibly answer, that, for anything I knew to the contrary, it had lain there forever: nor would it perhaps be very easy to show the absurdity of this answer. But suppose I had found a watch upon the ground, and it should be inquired how the watch happened to be in that place; I should hardly think of the answer I had before given, that for anything I knew, the watch might have always been there. ... There must have existed, at some time, and at some place or other, an artificer or artificers, who formed [the watch] for the purpose which we find it actually to answer; who comprehended its construction, and designed its use. ... Every indication of contrivance, every manifestation of design, which existed in the watch, exists in the works of nature; with the difference, on the side of nature, of being greater or more, and that in a degree which exceeds all computation.” William Paley, Natural Theology (1802)
The Cosmological Conclusion Therefore, the Universe has a cause. What could this cause be?
Candidates for Causes? • Abstract Objects • Numbers • Do they exist? • Can they do anything?
• Minds • Non-material • Can choose • Example: God!
Other Related Thoughts Thomas Aquinas • Unmoved Mover • All things in motion have a cause of their motion. • This series of movers cannot regress infinitely. • An original mover must be unmoved (no preceding mover).
• Uncaused Existor • All things caused to exist have a cause of their existence. • This series of causes cannot regress infinitely. • An original cause must be uncaused (no preceding cause).
• Necessary Being • Contingent beings can not exist. • Necessary beings must (and always) exist. • For contingent to exist, a necessary being must exist.
Design of Creatures • Giraffe • Moray Eel • Woodpecker • Owl
Giraffes need to drink…
Moray eels need to eat…
Woodpeckers have to peck…
Owls need to sneak…
The Fine Tuning of the Universe • Laws of Nature • Mathematical equations that describe the relationships between space, time, matter, and energy (all of nature)
• Constants • Unchanging values that appear in the laws of nature
• Initial Values • Initial conditions that are entered into equations of the laws of nature that cause them to match reality
• Fine Tuning • The constants and initial values in the laws of nature that describe the Universe fit into a very narrow range of values that allow the Universe to be life-permitting
Constants The constants characterizing these forces in the equations of the laws of nature are not determined by the laws of nature. Variation of these constants would result in different universes than the one in which we find ourselves. Examples: • • • •
Gravitational force Electromagnetic force Subatomic weak force Subatomic strong force
Initial Values Similar to the constants, the initial conditions are not determined by the laws of nature. Alteration of the initial conditions would result in a drastically different Universe. Examples: • • • •
The initial amount of entropy (or disorder) at the beginning of the Universe The initial homogeneity of the Universe The initial density of the Universe The initial speed of expansion of the Universe
Example of Constants and Initial Values Let 𝑦 be a physical quantity, and let 𝑡 be time The relationship between the two could be: 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑡 + 𝑏 In this example, 𝑎 represents a constant, and 𝑏 represents and initial value
b=2 5
4
3
y 2
1
0 0
1
2
3
4
time a=0
a=0.5
a=1
a=2
5
Changes to the Constants and Initial Values Modification of the gravitation or electromagnetic forces by 1 part in 1040 or Modification of the subatomic weak force by 1 part in 10100 or Modification of the cosmological constant that affects the acceleration of the Universe’s expansion by 1 part in 10120 All of the above would prevent the formation of a life-permitting Universe
Changes to the Constants and Initial Cond. 1 = 0.0000000000000000000000000000000000000001 1040 1 = 0.0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000001 10100 1 = 0.000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000001 10120
The Teleological Argument 1. Things that exhibits complex and specified design have a designer (or designers). 2. The Universe exhibits complex and specified design. 3. Therefore the Universe has a designer (or designers). 𝐴→𝐵 𝐴 ∴𝐵
Design in the Universe It is common experience that design points to the existence of a designer. The fine tuning of the constants and initial conditions are evidence of design. The design in the Universe is best described by a designer.
Candidates for the Designer? • Abstract objects… can do nothing. • Minds… make choices and are creative. GOD!
Another Design Argument 1. The Universe’s fine tuning is either due to physical necessity, chance, or design. 2. The fine tuning is not due to physical necessity or chance. 3. Therefore, the fine tuning is due to design.
Physical Necessity • The laws of nature do not dictate the constants or the initial conditions • A non-life-permitting universe would need to be shown to be impossible, but this has not been done • Certain theories, M-theory in particular, propose that there are 10500 possible universes, all with the same laws of nature but different constants and initial conditions, the vast majority of which are lifeprohibiting; therefore, making life-prohibiting universes more probable
Possible Combinations of the Values Here we go… 10500 = 100,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000, 000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000, 000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000, 000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000, 000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000, 000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000, 000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000
Chance If the constants and initial conditions necessary for life were accidentally obtained: • The odds of 60 the solar system forming by chance collisions of particles is 1 part in 1010 • The odds of 123 the Universe’s initial low entropy state obtaining by chance is 1 part in 1010 However, • There are only 1017 seconds in the history of the Universe and 1080 subatomic particles in the Universe When compared to these values, the probability that the fine tuning arrived by chance is inconceivably low.
The Conclusion Therefore, the fine tuning in the Universe is due to design. What or who could this designer be? GOD!
William Paley’s Watchmaker “In crossing a heath, suppose I pitched my foot against a stone, and were asked how the stone came to be there; I might possibly answer, that, for anything I knew to the contrary, it had lain there forever: nor would it perhaps be very easy to show the absurdity of this answer. But suppose I had found a watch upon the ground, and it should be inquired how the watch happened to be in that place; I should hardly think of the answer I had before given, that for anything I knew, the watch might have always been there. ... There must have existed, at some time, and at some place or other, an artificer or artificers, who formed [the watch] for the purpose which we find it actually to answer; who comprehended its construction, and designed its use. ... Every indication of contrivance, every manifestation of design, which existed in the watch, exists in the works of nature; with the difference, on the side of nature, of being greater or more, and that in a degree which exceeds all computation.” William Paley, Natural Theology (1802)
