Environmental Study of Korea - Disciples Home Missions
An Environmental Study Guide for Disciples Women Environmental issues of South Korea
The information provided in this study guide is a compilation of outside sources. See end of each individual article for source citations. Pollution With 8.4 tons of carbon dioxide emissions per capita, air pollution is a serious concern, particularly in major cities, because more than 80 percent of all South Koreans live in urban areas. Although far behind first-place China, South Korea’s much smaller population is the second largest consumer of ozone-depleting chlorofluorocarbons. City sewer systems are overtaxed. Other issues include water pollution from sewer discharge and industrial effluents, acid rain, drift net fishing, and wasteful packaging of consumer goods. Trans-boundary pollution concerns spurred the creation of a joint commission among South Korea, Japan, and China to address environmental problems. Forests and erosion Over the centuries, Korea's inhabitants have cut down most of the ancient Korean forests, with the exception of a few remote, mountainous areas. The disappearance of the forests has been a major cause of soil erosion and flooding. Because of successful reforestation programs and the declining use of firewood as a source of energy since the 1960s, most of South Korea's hills in the 1980s were amply covered with foliage. North Korean dam News that North Korea constructing a huge multipurpose dam at the base of Mount Kumgang (1,638 meters) north of the DMZ caused considerable consternation in South Korea during the mid-1980s . South Korean authorities feared that once completed, a sudden release of the dam's waters into the Pukhan River during north-south hostilities could flood Seoul and paralyze the capital region. During 1987 the Kumgang san Dam was a major issue that Seoul sought to raise in talks with P’yongyang. Though Seoul completed a "Peace Dam" on the Pukhan River to counteract the potential threat of P'yongyang's dam project before the 1988 Olympics, the North Korean project apparently still was in its initial stages of construction in 1990. Construction was suspended on the dam until 1995. The second phase of construction was completed in October 2000. This article incorporates public domain text from the Library of Congress Country Studies. Wikipedia contributors (2006). Environmental issues of South Korea. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 15:42, February 27, 2006 from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=Environmental_issues_of_South_Korea&oldid=39064063. January 2007
www.discipleswomen.org
Page 1 of 10
Copyright information: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=Wikipedia:Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License&printable=yes Interpretation of copyright information: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verbatim_copying#Printed_Copies
Photo provided by Woman-to Woman Worldwide 2005 Korea participant.
Focus on energy Editor’s note: According to the Energy Information Administration, Official Energy Statistics of the U.S. government, “The Republic of Korea (South Korea) is important to world energy markets as the fifth largest oil importer, and the second largest importer of Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG).”
The following article provides an overview of energy consumption in South Korea and its environmental impacts. Introduction For years, South Korea was one of Asia's fastest-growing economies, but the country's rapid industrialization was accompanied by a corresponding increase in its energy consumption and pollution levels, both of which had a detrimental effect on South Korea's environment. South Korea was one of the countries most adversely affected during the Asian economic crises of January 2007
www.discipleswomen.org
Page 2 of 10
1997 and 1998, but although the financial crisis halted the growth of energy use and rising carbon emissions, the country's recession had negative environmental ramifications as well. As South Korea looked to spur its economy, funds originally intended for environmental programs were shifted to economic recovery projects, and the government's Long-Term Development Plan was postponed. South Korea rebounded remarkably quickly from the Asian financial crisis, but the country's recovery also has led to increased levels of carbon emissions and energy consumption. Air Pollution Until recently, industrial facilities were the primary culprits contributing to South Korea's air pollution problems, especially in Seoul. However, higher environmental standards and tighter enforcement have led to a reduction in pollutants such as sulfur dioxide and total suspended particulates. Nevertheless, increased emissions and pollutants emanating from non-point sources--namely, automobiles--have superseded these industrial complexes as the principle source of urban air pollution. The total volume of pollutants from automobiles in South Korea is estimated to be approximately 1.6 million metric tons per year, over 80 percent of which are concentrated in urban areas. Large diesel buses and trucks, which account for under 10 percent of all vehicles, nonetheless are responsible for over 40 percent of total emissions. The South Korean government is using a package of fiscal incentives, including exemptions from valueadded and acquisition taxes, to promote the substitution of 20,000 diesel buses with ones that run on compressed natural gas (CNG) by 2007. Furthermore, the government is strengthening the country's emissions standards so that they are comparable to those of other countries of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). Other public policy measures include promoting the use of electric vehicles, collecting tolls on high-traffic roads, and raising downtown parking fees in major South Korean cities. Trans-boundary pollution also is a major problem for South Korea and its neighbors. Emissions from South Korean steel mills contribute to acid rain problems in Taiwan and Japan, while industrial emissions from China have the same effect in South Korea. Environmental ministers from China, Japan and South Korea and other countries in the region have formed an East Asia acid rain monitoring program to address the problem. The monitoring program is seeking to increase regional cooperation in order to tackle the acid rain problem, although progress has been slow. Energy Use and Carbon Emissions South Korea's total primary energy consumption rose steadily from 1980 to 1997, from 1.7 quadrillion (quads) Btu to 7.4 quads. However, the Asian financial crisis in 1997-1998 hit South Korea particularly hard, and the effects of the financial crisis reverberated through the economy, stifling energy demand. As a result, South Korea's primary energy consumption fell to 6.8 quads in 1998. Nevertheless, the country's energy consumption rebounded quickly, rising again to 8.1 quads in 2001. January 2007
www.discipleswomen.org
Page 3 of 10
Roughly mirroring the country's energy consumption pattern, South Korea's total energy-related carbon emissions increased from 35.1 million metric tons in 1980 to 117.9 million metric tons in 1997, before dropping to 100.6 million metric tons in 1998 when consumption of fossil fuels declined. Again, however, carbon emissions have increased with the rebound of South Korea's economy and its energy consumption, with carbon emissions rising to 104.8 million metric tons in 1999 and then to 120.8 million metric tons in 2001. As of 2001, only seven countries worldwide emitted more carbon than South Korea. (Editor’s note: see 2003 statistics at end of article. Korea ranked ninth in 2003.)
South Korea's rapid industrialization process over the past several decades has resulted in the country's industrial sector energy consumption increasing by more than 300 percent, from 1.0 quads in 1985 to 4.2 quads just over a decade later. Although the large and growing number of automobiles is increasing the transportation sector's share of South Korea's overall energy consumption, the industrial sector still accounts for the bulk of the country's energy consumption. The industrial sector accounts for approximately 56 percent of South Korea's energy consumption, followed by the transportation (20 percent), commercial (15 percent), and residential (9 percent) sectors. With regard to the fuel share of energy consumption, petroleum--all of which South Korea must import--makes up the largest percentage, and as the country's overall energy consumption has increased, so has its oil consumption. Coal is the second most prevalent fuel, although its usage has stayed relatively static over the past four years as consumption of more environmentallyfriendly natural gas and non-carbon-emitting nuclear power have increased in scope. South Korea now has 18 operational nuclear power reactors, with two more under construction and planned to go online by 2004. Renewable energy, mainly hydropower, is slowly gaining a foothold in South Korea's energy consumption mix. Not surprisingly, then, oil consumption makes up the largest fuel share of South Korea's carbon emissions. However, as South Korea's carbon emissions have increased overall over the course of the last decade, oil's percentage of those carbon emissions has actually declined, from 59 percent in 1990 to 55 percent in 2001. Likewise, although coal-related carbon emissions have increased, the percentage of South Korea's overall carbon emissions from coal fell from 38 percent in 1990 to 35 percent in 2001. South Korea's increased consumption of natural gas during the 1990s meant that its percentage of the country's overall carbon emissions rose from 3 percent in 1990 to 10 percent in 2001. The South Korean government's plans to increase natural gas usage vis-à-vis coal and oil is likely to mean that this 10 percent figure will continue to increase during the next decade. South Korea is a non-Annex I country under the Kyoto Protocol and thus is not committed to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions. Nevertheless, the country is planning to increase its nuclear capacity over the next 15 years in an effort to reduce its carbon emissions. In November 2002, South Korea ratified the Kyoto Protocol.
January 2007
www.discipleswomen.org
Page 4 of 10
Energy and Carbon Intensity Like many other rapidly industrializing developing countries of the 1980s and 1990s, increases in South Korea's gross domestic product (GDP) coincided with even greater increases in energy consumption. Energy intensity (energy consumed per dollar of output) in South Korea increased from 11,054 Btu per $/1995 in 1980 to 12,606 Btu per $/1995 in 2001, although the 2001 level is down from the peak of 13,537 Btu per $/1995 in 1995. South Korea's energy intensity is comparable to that of the Philippines (13,748 Btu per $/1995 in 2001), New Zealand (11,893 Btu per $/1995), and Taiwan (12,229 Btu per $/1995), but it is still four times as energy intensive as Japan (3,879 Btu per $/1995). While energy intensity has increased over the past two decades, carbon intensity has stayed relatively stable, declining slightly. In 2001, the South Korean economy produced 0.19 metric tons of carbon per thousand $1995, down from 0.24 metric tons of carbon per thousand $1995 in 1980. Part of this decrease in carbon intensity can be attributed to the movement away from highly carbon-intensive coal to less carbon-intensive oil and natural gas. In 1990, coal accounted for 24.2 percent of primary energy consumption, while in 2001, it accounted for 21 percent, while natural gas consumption rose from 3.2 percent to 10.3 percent of South Korea's primary energy consumption. While South Korea's level of carbon intensity is less than most of its Asian neighbors, it is still nearly twice as high as Hong Kong (0.10 metric tons of carbon per thousand $1995 in 2001) and more than three times that of Japan (0.06 metric tons of carbon per thousand $1995 in 2001). Energy Use and Carbon Emissions Per Capita South Korea's per capita energy consumption and carbon emissions have increased dramatically over the past two decades. The country's per capita energy consumption has increased nearly four-fold, from 44.0 million Btu per person in 1980 to 170.2 million Btu per person in 2001. Among the "Asian tigers," South Korea's energy consumption per capita is by far the highest (save for the city-state of Singapore, at 399 million Btu per person in 2001). South Korea's per capita energy consumption is now comparable to that of Japan (172.2 million Btu in 2001), and Japan's energy conservation policies are likely to mean South Korea will soon exceed its Pacific neighbor in terms of per capita energy consumption. Per capita carbon emissions in South Korea also have increased significantly since 1980. In 1980, the country emitted just 0.9 metric tons of carbon per person (compared, for example, to Japan's 2.2 metric tons of carbon emitted for the same year). Carbon emissions per person in South Korea have risen rapidly since then, however, reaching 2.6 metric tons per person in 1997 and then again in 2001. By way of comparison, Japan's per capita carbon emissions of 2.5 metric tons in 2001 represented just a 13.7 percent increase over the country's 1980 levels, whereas South Korea's per capita carbon emissions in 2001 stood at 189 percent of the country's 1980 levels. Renewable Energy Over the past two decades, the development of renewable energy sources has been put on the back burner as industrial development goals have taken priority. The South Korean government's focus on increased economic growth by increasing energy imports (South Korea is now January 2007
www.discipleswomen.org
Page 5 of 10
the world's fourth-largest energy importer) has been at the expense of research devoted to renewable energy and energy efficiency. With approximately 90 percent of increased renewable supply attributable to the capturing of waste heat, the development potential of other potential renewable sources--such as solar, wind and tide--has not actively pursued. However, South Korea's financial crises in 1997 and 1998 focused attention on the country's near-total dependence on imported energy sources and resulted in an increased awareness of renewable energy possibilities. The 1997-1998 financial crises, combined with the devaluation of the country's currency (the won), led to a doubling of energy prices, highlighting the need for South Korea not only to improve its energy efficiency programs, but also to seek to develop domestic renewable energy sources. South Korea's Alternative Energy R&D programs focus on activities that will provide renewable energy technologies to the largest percentage of the population. The program aims to develop solar thermal energy, photovoltaic power, fuel cells, etc., in order to increase the percentage of renewable energy in its total energy mix from 0.5 percent in the mid-1990s to 2.0 percent in 2006. In 2001, renewable energy sources--virtually all hydropower--still accounted for only 0.6 percent of South Korea's energy consumption. Environmental Outlook Cooperation among regional neighbors is key to promoting what South Korean Environment Minister Kim Myong-cha heralds as the new "Century of the Environment." In February 2000, for example, environmental ministers from Japan, China and South Korea agreed to a study on acid rain and air pollution, as well as to the establishment of a jointly run environmental data center. South Korea is a member of the Northeast Asian Sub-regional Program of Environmental Cooperation (NEASPEC) and the Northwest Pacific Action Plan (NOWPAP). NEASPEC, whose members include South Korea, North Korea, China, Japan, Russia and Mongolia, was founded in 1993 and supports pollution reduction, environmental monitoring and energy efficiency programs in the region. NOWPAP, which includes South Korea, China, Japan and Russia, was established in 1994 and focuses on ocean pollution and the environment. Both South Korea's energy demand and its carbon emissions are projected to increase by approximately 3 percent per year through 2020. The country's electricity consumption is projected to double by 2020. Furthermore, South Korea is one of the few countries in developing Asia that is expected to increase the consumption of coal for electricity generation. These forecasts suggest South Korea's environmental situation could worsen without improvements in energy efficiency and public policy measures to spur the increased usage of renewable energy resources. To address these issues, the South Korean government has established the National Vision for Environmental Policies in the 21st Century. This policy framework emphasizes promotion of green development schemes, such as increased usage of photovoltaic power and fuel cells, as well as the introduction of natural gas buses in large cities such as Seoul and Pusan. South Korea is also attempting to increase the country's access to cleaner-burning natural gas and shift away from its overdependence on petroleum. The South Korean government is actively seeking to import natural gas from Russia, either as liquefied natural gas (LNG) from Sakhalin Island or from a proposed natural gas pipeline from January 2007
www.discipleswomen.org
Page 6 of 10
Eastern Siberia to China and possibly to the Korean Peninsula. Natural gas supplies are not expected to arrive from this region, however, until at least 2010. In the meantime, South Korea will have to implement energy efficiency measures and de-link its air pollution problems from the country's economic growth in order to better protect its environment. Energy Information Administration, Official Energy Statistics of the U.S. government (2003). South Korea: Environmental issues. Energy Information Administration. Retrieved 11:21, February 27, 2006 from http:// www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/skoren.html.
Carbon emissions statistics According to the Energy Information Administration, the top countries for Carbon Dioxide Emissions from the Consumption and Flaring of Fossil Fuels, 1980-2003 and their Million Metric Tons Carbon Equivalent are: 1. United States 1,582 2. China 965 3. Russia 438 4. Japan 328 5. India 279 6. Germany 229 7. Canada 163 8. United Kingdom 153 9. South Korea 128 10. Italy 126 11. Mexico 110.38 Energy Information Administration International Energy Annual 2003 U.S. Department of Energy
Study questions
Why should we be concerned about increasing carbon dioxide and other “greenhouse” gas emissions? How has increased industrialization and per capita wealth affected the environment? How would you compare and contrast Korea’s and the United States’ environmental problems? What lessons might we learn from South Korea’s situation? What life-style changes might you make or have you made to improve air quality?
January 2007
www.discipleswomen.org
Page 7 of 10
Map courtesy of http://www.lonelyplanet.com/worldguide/destinations/asia/south-korea/
Geography Korea forms a peninsula that extends some 1,100 km from the Asian mainland, flanked by the Yellow Sea and the Sea of Japan (East Sea), and terminated by the Korea Strait and the East China Sea to the south. The southern landscape consists of partially forested mountain ranges to the east, separated by deep, narrow valleys. Densely populated and cultivated coastal plains are found in the west and south. About 3,000 islands, most of which are small and uninhabited, lie off the western and southern coasts. The total area of South Korea is 99,617.38 km2 (According to the statistics of 2004 (http://kosis.nso.go.kr/). Editor note: The total area is slightly larger than Indiana.
South Korea is a mountainous country. Lowlands, located primarily in the west and southeast, constitute only 30 percent of the total land area. South Korea can be divided into three general regions: an eastern region of high mountain ranges and narrow coastal plains; a western region of broad coastal plains, river basins, and rolling hills; and a southern region, where a maze of mountains and valleys in the west contrasts with the broad basin of the Nakdong River in the southeast. Halla-san, an extinct volcano that forms Jeju Island, is the country's highest point at 1,950 m (6,398 ft). Jeju Island is located about 100 km (about 60 mi) off the southern coast of South Korea. It is the country's largest island, with an area of 1,845 km2 (712 sq mi).
January 2007
www.discipleswomen.org
Page 8 of 10
Climate The local climate is relatively temperature (Editor note: temperate climates have four distinct seasons) with precipitation heavier in summer during a short rainy season called jangma, and winters that can be bitterly cold on occasion. In Seoul the average January temperature range is -7 °C to 1 °C (19 °F to 33 °F), and the average July temperature range is 22 °C to 29 °C (71 °F to 83 °F). Winter temperatures are higher along the southern coast and considerably lower in the mountainous interior. Rainfall is concentrated in the summer months of June through September. The southern coast is subject to late summer typhoons that bring strong winds and heavy rains. The average annual precipitation in Seoul is 1370 millimeters (54 inches). In Busan, it is 1470 mm (58 inches).
Wildlife Most of South Korea's forests were cleared over many centuries for use as firewood and building materials. However, they have rebounded since the 1970s as a result of intensive reforestation efforts. The country's few remaining old-growth forests are protected in nature reserves. South Korea also has more than a dozen national parks. One of the world's most interesting wildlife sanctuaries has developed in the DMZ, having been virtually untouched since 1953. The uninhabited zone has become a haven for many kinds of wildlife, particularly migrating birds. South Korea is the home to three of the eight varieties of swans. The national flower of South Korea is the Rose of Sharon, a species of hibiscus that blooms continually from July through October. In South Korea, it is known as mugunghwa (무궁화), meaning "eternal flower". Large mammals such as tigers, bears, and lynx were once abundant throughout the Korean peninsula. However, they have virtually disappeared due to human settlement, loss of forest habitat, and over hunting. The Siberian tiger has not been sighted in South Korea since the 1920s. However, bears and wildcats can still be found in the more remote areas, such as Jiri san and Seorak san. South Korea has several indigenous species of deer, including the roe deer and the Siberian musk deer. Wikipedia contributors (2006). South Korea. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 15:45, February 27, 2006 from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=South_Korea&oldid=41423961.
Resources The National Council of Churches Eco-Justice Working Group has a number of resources related to energy use, environment and climate available to assist you as you work through the study questions. You can access them at: http://www.nccecojustice.org/climatehome.htm
January 2007
www.discipleswomen.org
Page 9 of 10
Other resources include: ∗
Interfaith Climate Change Network (ICCN) http://www.protectingcreation.org/
∗
Earth Ministry http://www.earthministry.org/
∗
Eco-Justice Ministries http://www.eco-justice.org/
∗
Disciple Eco-justice/environmental ministries http://www.discipleshomemissions.org/PublicWitness/Environment.htm
∗
Disciples General Assembly Resolutions of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) concerning ecology http://www.discipleshomemissions.org/PublicWitness/ ResolutionsEcology.htm
.
Photo provided by Woman-to-Woman 2005 Korea participant. Shows view of country side. Note electrical apparatus in the foreground..
January 2007
www.discipleswomen.org
Page 10 of 10
The information provided in this study guide is a compilation of outside sources. See end of each individual article for source citations. Pollution With 8.4 tons of carbon dioxide emissions per capita, air pollution is a serious concern, particularly in major cities, because more than 80 percent of all South Koreans live in urban areas. Although far behind first-place China, South Korea’s much smaller population is the second largest consumer of ozone-depleting chlorofluorocarbons. City sewer systems are overtaxed. Other issues include water pollution from sewer discharge and industrial effluents, acid rain, drift net fishing, and wasteful packaging of consumer goods. Trans-boundary pollution concerns spurred the creation of a joint commission among South Korea, Japan, and China to address environmental problems. Forests and erosion Over the centuries, Korea's inhabitants have cut down most of the ancient Korean forests, with the exception of a few remote, mountainous areas. The disappearance of the forests has been a major cause of soil erosion and flooding. Because of successful reforestation programs and the declining use of firewood as a source of energy since the 1960s, most of South Korea's hills in the 1980s were amply covered with foliage. North Korean dam News that North Korea constructing a huge multipurpose dam at the base of Mount Kumgang (1,638 meters) north of the DMZ caused considerable consternation in South Korea during the mid-1980s . South Korean authorities feared that once completed, a sudden release of the dam's waters into the Pukhan River during north-south hostilities could flood Seoul and paralyze the capital region. During 1987 the Kumgang san Dam was a major issue that Seoul sought to raise in talks with P’yongyang. Though Seoul completed a "Peace Dam" on the Pukhan River to counteract the potential threat of P'yongyang's dam project before the 1988 Olympics, the North Korean project apparently still was in its initial stages of construction in 1990. Construction was suspended on the dam until 1995. The second phase of construction was completed in October 2000. This article incorporates public domain text from the Library of Congress Country Studies. Wikipedia contributors (2006). Environmental issues of South Korea. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 15:42, February 27, 2006 from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=Environmental_issues_of_South_Korea&oldid=39064063. January 2007
www.discipleswomen.org
Page 1 of 10
Copyright information: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php? title=Wikipedia:Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License&printable=yes Interpretation of copyright information: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verbatim_copying#Printed_Copies
Photo provided by Woman-to Woman Worldwide 2005 Korea participant.
Focus on energy Editor’s note: According to the Energy Information Administration, Official Energy Statistics of the U.S. government, “The Republic of Korea (South Korea) is important to world energy markets as the fifth largest oil importer, and the second largest importer of Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG).”
The following article provides an overview of energy consumption in South Korea and its environmental impacts. Introduction For years, South Korea was one of Asia's fastest-growing economies, but the country's rapid industrialization was accompanied by a corresponding increase in its energy consumption and pollution levels, both of which had a detrimental effect on South Korea's environment. South Korea was one of the countries most adversely affected during the Asian economic crises of January 2007
www.discipleswomen.org
Page 2 of 10
1997 and 1998, but although the financial crisis halted the growth of energy use and rising carbon emissions, the country's recession had negative environmental ramifications as well. As South Korea looked to spur its economy, funds originally intended for environmental programs were shifted to economic recovery projects, and the government's Long-Term Development Plan was postponed. South Korea rebounded remarkably quickly from the Asian financial crisis, but the country's recovery also has led to increased levels of carbon emissions and energy consumption. Air Pollution Until recently, industrial facilities were the primary culprits contributing to South Korea's air pollution problems, especially in Seoul. However, higher environmental standards and tighter enforcement have led to a reduction in pollutants such as sulfur dioxide and total suspended particulates. Nevertheless, increased emissions and pollutants emanating from non-point sources--namely, automobiles--have superseded these industrial complexes as the principle source of urban air pollution. The total volume of pollutants from automobiles in South Korea is estimated to be approximately 1.6 million metric tons per year, over 80 percent of which are concentrated in urban areas. Large diesel buses and trucks, which account for under 10 percent of all vehicles, nonetheless are responsible for over 40 percent of total emissions. The South Korean government is using a package of fiscal incentives, including exemptions from valueadded and acquisition taxes, to promote the substitution of 20,000 diesel buses with ones that run on compressed natural gas (CNG) by 2007. Furthermore, the government is strengthening the country's emissions standards so that they are comparable to those of other countries of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). Other public policy measures include promoting the use of electric vehicles, collecting tolls on high-traffic roads, and raising downtown parking fees in major South Korean cities. Trans-boundary pollution also is a major problem for South Korea and its neighbors. Emissions from South Korean steel mills contribute to acid rain problems in Taiwan and Japan, while industrial emissions from China have the same effect in South Korea. Environmental ministers from China, Japan and South Korea and other countries in the region have formed an East Asia acid rain monitoring program to address the problem. The monitoring program is seeking to increase regional cooperation in order to tackle the acid rain problem, although progress has been slow. Energy Use and Carbon Emissions South Korea's total primary energy consumption rose steadily from 1980 to 1997, from 1.7 quadrillion (quads) Btu to 7.4 quads. However, the Asian financial crisis in 1997-1998 hit South Korea particularly hard, and the effects of the financial crisis reverberated through the economy, stifling energy demand. As a result, South Korea's primary energy consumption fell to 6.8 quads in 1998. Nevertheless, the country's energy consumption rebounded quickly, rising again to 8.1 quads in 2001. January 2007
www.discipleswomen.org
Page 3 of 10
Roughly mirroring the country's energy consumption pattern, South Korea's total energy-related carbon emissions increased from 35.1 million metric tons in 1980 to 117.9 million metric tons in 1997, before dropping to 100.6 million metric tons in 1998 when consumption of fossil fuels declined. Again, however, carbon emissions have increased with the rebound of South Korea's economy and its energy consumption, with carbon emissions rising to 104.8 million metric tons in 1999 and then to 120.8 million metric tons in 2001. As of 2001, only seven countries worldwide emitted more carbon than South Korea. (Editor’s note: see 2003 statistics at end of article. Korea ranked ninth in 2003.)
South Korea's rapid industrialization process over the past several decades has resulted in the country's industrial sector energy consumption increasing by more than 300 percent, from 1.0 quads in 1985 to 4.2 quads just over a decade later. Although the large and growing number of automobiles is increasing the transportation sector's share of South Korea's overall energy consumption, the industrial sector still accounts for the bulk of the country's energy consumption. The industrial sector accounts for approximately 56 percent of South Korea's energy consumption, followed by the transportation (20 percent), commercial (15 percent), and residential (9 percent) sectors. With regard to the fuel share of energy consumption, petroleum--all of which South Korea must import--makes up the largest percentage, and as the country's overall energy consumption has increased, so has its oil consumption. Coal is the second most prevalent fuel, although its usage has stayed relatively static over the past four years as consumption of more environmentallyfriendly natural gas and non-carbon-emitting nuclear power have increased in scope. South Korea now has 18 operational nuclear power reactors, with two more under construction and planned to go online by 2004. Renewable energy, mainly hydropower, is slowly gaining a foothold in South Korea's energy consumption mix. Not surprisingly, then, oil consumption makes up the largest fuel share of South Korea's carbon emissions. However, as South Korea's carbon emissions have increased overall over the course of the last decade, oil's percentage of those carbon emissions has actually declined, from 59 percent in 1990 to 55 percent in 2001. Likewise, although coal-related carbon emissions have increased, the percentage of South Korea's overall carbon emissions from coal fell from 38 percent in 1990 to 35 percent in 2001. South Korea's increased consumption of natural gas during the 1990s meant that its percentage of the country's overall carbon emissions rose from 3 percent in 1990 to 10 percent in 2001. The South Korean government's plans to increase natural gas usage vis-à-vis coal and oil is likely to mean that this 10 percent figure will continue to increase during the next decade. South Korea is a non-Annex I country under the Kyoto Protocol and thus is not committed to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions. Nevertheless, the country is planning to increase its nuclear capacity over the next 15 years in an effort to reduce its carbon emissions. In November 2002, South Korea ratified the Kyoto Protocol.
January 2007
www.discipleswomen.org
Page 4 of 10
Energy and Carbon Intensity Like many other rapidly industrializing developing countries of the 1980s and 1990s, increases in South Korea's gross domestic product (GDP) coincided with even greater increases in energy consumption. Energy intensity (energy consumed per dollar of output) in South Korea increased from 11,054 Btu per $/1995 in 1980 to 12,606 Btu per $/1995 in 2001, although the 2001 level is down from the peak of 13,537 Btu per $/1995 in 1995. South Korea's energy intensity is comparable to that of the Philippines (13,748 Btu per $/1995 in 2001), New Zealand (11,893 Btu per $/1995), and Taiwan (12,229 Btu per $/1995), but it is still four times as energy intensive as Japan (3,879 Btu per $/1995). While energy intensity has increased over the past two decades, carbon intensity has stayed relatively stable, declining slightly. In 2001, the South Korean economy produced 0.19 metric tons of carbon per thousand $1995, down from 0.24 metric tons of carbon per thousand $1995 in 1980. Part of this decrease in carbon intensity can be attributed to the movement away from highly carbon-intensive coal to less carbon-intensive oil and natural gas. In 1990, coal accounted for 24.2 percent of primary energy consumption, while in 2001, it accounted for 21 percent, while natural gas consumption rose from 3.2 percent to 10.3 percent of South Korea's primary energy consumption. While South Korea's level of carbon intensity is less than most of its Asian neighbors, it is still nearly twice as high as Hong Kong (0.10 metric tons of carbon per thousand $1995 in 2001) and more than three times that of Japan (0.06 metric tons of carbon per thousand $1995 in 2001). Energy Use and Carbon Emissions Per Capita South Korea's per capita energy consumption and carbon emissions have increased dramatically over the past two decades. The country's per capita energy consumption has increased nearly four-fold, from 44.0 million Btu per person in 1980 to 170.2 million Btu per person in 2001. Among the "Asian tigers," South Korea's energy consumption per capita is by far the highest (save for the city-state of Singapore, at 399 million Btu per person in 2001). South Korea's per capita energy consumption is now comparable to that of Japan (172.2 million Btu in 2001), and Japan's energy conservation policies are likely to mean South Korea will soon exceed its Pacific neighbor in terms of per capita energy consumption. Per capita carbon emissions in South Korea also have increased significantly since 1980. In 1980, the country emitted just 0.9 metric tons of carbon per person (compared, for example, to Japan's 2.2 metric tons of carbon emitted for the same year). Carbon emissions per person in South Korea have risen rapidly since then, however, reaching 2.6 metric tons per person in 1997 and then again in 2001. By way of comparison, Japan's per capita carbon emissions of 2.5 metric tons in 2001 represented just a 13.7 percent increase over the country's 1980 levels, whereas South Korea's per capita carbon emissions in 2001 stood at 189 percent of the country's 1980 levels. Renewable Energy Over the past two decades, the development of renewable energy sources has been put on the back burner as industrial development goals have taken priority. The South Korean government's focus on increased economic growth by increasing energy imports (South Korea is now January 2007
www.discipleswomen.org
Page 5 of 10
the world's fourth-largest energy importer) has been at the expense of research devoted to renewable energy and energy efficiency. With approximately 90 percent of increased renewable supply attributable to the capturing of waste heat, the development potential of other potential renewable sources--such as solar, wind and tide--has not actively pursued. However, South Korea's financial crises in 1997 and 1998 focused attention on the country's near-total dependence on imported energy sources and resulted in an increased awareness of renewable energy possibilities. The 1997-1998 financial crises, combined with the devaluation of the country's currency (the won), led to a doubling of energy prices, highlighting the need for South Korea not only to improve its energy efficiency programs, but also to seek to develop domestic renewable energy sources. South Korea's Alternative Energy R&D programs focus on activities that will provide renewable energy technologies to the largest percentage of the population. The program aims to develop solar thermal energy, photovoltaic power, fuel cells, etc., in order to increase the percentage of renewable energy in its total energy mix from 0.5 percent in the mid-1990s to 2.0 percent in 2006. In 2001, renewable energy sources--virtually all hydropower--still accounted for only 0.6 percent of South Korea's energy consumption. Environmental Outlook Cooperation among regional neighbors is key to promoting what South Korean Environment Minister Kim Myong-cha heralds as the new "Century of the Environment." In February 2000, for example, environmental ministers from Japan, China and South Korea agreed to a study on acid rain and air pollution, as well as to the establishment of a jointly run environmental data center. South Korea is a member of the Northeast Asian Sub-regional Program of Environmental Cooperation (NEASPEC) and the Northwest Pacific Action Plan (NOWPAP). NEASPEC, whose members include South Korea, North Korea, China, Japan, Russia and Mongolia, was founded in 1993 and supports pollution reduction, environmental monitoring and energy efficiency programs in the region. NOWPAP, which includes South Korea, China, Japan and Russia, was established in 1994 and focuses on ocean pollution and the environment. Both South Korea's energy demand and its carbon emissions are projected to increase by approximately 3 percent per year through 2020. The country's electricity consumption is projected to double by 2020. Furthermore, South Korea is one of the few countries in developing Asia that is expected to increase the consumption of coal for electricity generation. These forecasts suggest South Korea's environmental situation could worsen without improvements in energy efficiency and public policy measures to spur the increased usage of renewable energy resources. To address these issues, the South Korean government has established the National Vision for Environmental Policies in the 21st Century. This policy framework emphasizes promotion of green development schemes, such as increased usage of photovoltaic power and fuel cells, as well as the introduction of natural gas buses in large cities such as Seoul and Pusan. South Korea is also attempting to increase the country's access to cleaner-burning natural gas and shift away from its overdependence on petroleum. The South Korean government is actively seeking to import natural gas from Russia, either as liquefied natural gas (LNG) from Sakhalin Island or from a proposed natural gas pipeline from January 2007
www.discipleswomen.org
Page 6 of 10
Eastern Siberia to China and possibly to the Korean Peninsula. Natural gas supplies are not expected to arrive from this region, however, until at least 2010. In the meantime, South Korea will have to implement energy efficiency measures and de-link its air pollution problems from the country's economic growth in order to better protect its environment. Energy Information Administration, Official Energy Statistics of the U.S. government (2003). South Korea: Environmental issues. Energy Information Administration. Retrieved 11:21, February 27, 2006 from http:// www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/skoren.html.
Carbon emissions statistics According to the Energy Information Administration, the top countries for Carbon Dioxide Emissions from the Consumption and Flaring of Fossil Fuels, 1980-2003 and their Million Metric Tons Carbon Equivalent are: 1. United States 1,582 2. China 965 3. Russia 438 4. Japan 328 5. India 279 6. Germany 229 7. Canada 163 8. United Kingdom 153 9. South Korea 128 10. Italy 126 11. Mexico 110.38 Energy Information Administration International Energy Annual 2003 U.S. Department of Energy
Study questions
Why should we be concerned about increasing carbon dioxide and other “greenhouse” gas emissions? How has increased industrialization and per capita wealth affected the environment? How would you compare and contrast Korea’s and the United States’ environmental problems? What lessons might we learn from South Korea’s situation? What life-style changes might you make or have you made to improve air quality?
January 2007
www.discipleswomen.org
Page 7 of 10
Map courtesy of http://www.lonelyplanet.com/worldguide/destinations/asia/south-korea/
Geography Korea forms a peninsula that extends some 1,100 km from the Asian mainland, flanked by the Yellow Sea and the Sea of Japan (East Sea), and terminated by the Korea Strait and the East China Sea to the south. The southern landscape consists of partially forested mountain ranges to the east, separated by deep, narrow valleys. Densely populated and cultivated coastal plains are found in the west and south. About 3,000 islands, most of which are small and uninhabited, lie off the western and southern coasts. The total area of South Korea is 99,617.38 km2 (According to the statistics of 2004 (http://kosis.nso.go.kr/). Editor note: The total area is slightly larger than Indiana.
South Korea is a mountainous country. Lowlands, located primarily in the west and southeast, constitute only 30 percent of the total land area. South Korea can be divided into three general regions: an eastern region of high mountain ranges and narrow coastal plains; a western region of broad coastal plains, river basins, and rolling hills; and a southern region, where a maze of mountains and valleys in the west contrasts with the broad basin of the Nakdong River in the southeast. Halla-san, an extinct volcano that forms Jeju Island, is the country's highest point at 1,950 m (6,398 ft). Jeju Island is located about 100 km (about 60 mi) off the southern coast of South Korea. It is the country's largest island, with an area of 1,845 km2 (712 sq mi).
January 2007
www.discipleswomen.org
Page 8 of 10
Climate The local climate is relatively temperature (Editor note: temperate climates have four distinct seasons) with precipitation heavier in summer during a short rainy season called jangma, and winters that can be bitterly cold on occasion. In Seoul the average January temperature range is -7 °C to 1 °C (19 °F to 33 °F), and the average July temperature range is 22 °C to 29 °C (71 °F to 83 °F). Winter temperatures are higher along the southern coast and considerably lower in the mountainous interior. Rainfall is concentrated in the summer months of June through September. The southern coast is subject to late summer typhoons that bring strong winds and heavy rains. The average annual precipitation in Seoul is 1370 millimeters (54 inches). In Busan, it is 1470 mm (58 inches).
Wildlife Most of South Korea's forests were cleared over many centuries for use as firewood and building materials. However, they have rebounded since the 1970s as a result of intensive reforestation efforts. The country's few remaining old-growth forests are protected in nature reserves. South Korea also has more than a dozen national parks. One of the world's most interesting wildlife sanctuaries has developed in the DMZ, having been virtually untouched since 1953. The uninhabited zone has become a haven for many kinds of wildlife, particularly migrating birds. South Korea is the home to three of the eight varieties of swans. The national flower of South Korea is the Rose of Sharon, a species of hibiscus that blooms continually from July through October. In South Korea, it is known as mugunghwa (무궁화), meaning "eternal flower". Large mammals such as tigers, bears, and lynx were once abundant throughout the Korean peninsula. However, they have virtually disappeared due to human settlement, loss of forest habitat, and over hunting. The Siberian tiger has not been sighted in South Korea since the 1920s. However, bears and wildcats can still be found in the more remote areas, such as Jiri san and Seorak san. South Korea has several indigenous species of deer, including the roe deer and the Siberian musk deer. Wikipedia contributors (2006). South Korea. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 15:45, February 27, 2006 from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=South_Korea&oldid=41423961.
Resources The National Council of Churches Eco-Justice Working Group has a number of resources related to energy use, environment and climate available to assist you as you work through the study questions. You can access them at: http://www.nccecojustice.org/climatehome.htm
January 2007
www.discipleswomen.org
Page 9 of 10
Other resources include: ∗
Interfaith Climate Change Network (ICCN) http://www.protectingcreation.org/
∗
Earth Ministry http://www.earthministry.org/
∗
Eco-Justice Ministries http://www.eco-justice.org/
∗
Disciple Eco-justice/environmental ministries http://www.discipleshomemissions.org/PublicWitness/Environment.htm
∗
Disciples General Assembly Resolutions of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) concerning ecology http://www.discipleshomemissions.org/PublicWitness/ ResolutionsEcology.htm
.
Photo provided by Woman-to-Woman 2005 Korea participant. Shows view of country side. Note electrical apparatus in the foreground..
January 2007
www.discipleswomen.org
Page 10 of 10
