Food & NuTriTioN TechNical BulleTiN
Food & Nutrition Technical Bulletin
®TMTrademark of The Dow Chemical Company (“Dow”) or an affiliated company of Dow
WELLENCE Gluten Free
TM
Great tasting gluten free baked products Affordable high quality gluten free baked products can now be achieved using Dow Wolff Cellulosics’ food ingredient Wellence™ Gluten Free. The wide variety of baked products allows consumers to enjoy gluten free baked products every day.
Cost in Use
Ingredients
The improved Wellence™ Gluten Free achieves better results in increased volume and better texture at significantly reduced egg content (up to 65% reduction). Lower egg levels can lead to significant cost in use reduction.
31.6000 %
34.2300 %
Potato starch
12.4000 %
12.4000 %
Tapioca starch
4.1000 %
4.1000 %
Sugar
3.7000%
3.7000 %
Yeast
0.5600 %
0.5600 %
Xanthan Gum Wellence™ Gluten Free Warm milk Butter
• Broader consumer acceptance, high quality end product mimicking gluten in baked products • Exceptional performance vs. xanthan gum at comparable cost in use • Significant cost advantage versus competitive products • Reduces costs through low egg content formulation and minimizes risk of profit erosion due to egg price volatility
17% Egg / 0.23% Xanthan
5.6% Egg / 0.7% WellenceTM Gluten Free
COST IN USE
AMOUNT OF EGG USED*
0.5600 %
0.5600 %
0.2300 %
0.0000 %
0.0000 %
0.7000 %
23.8500 %
22.1500 %
6.000 %
6.000 %
Whole egg
17.0000 %
5.6000 %
TOTAL
100.0000 %
100.0000 %
WellenceTM Gluten Free
Wellence™ Gluten Free delivers cost in use savings of up to 50% compared to current leading solutions.
It’s not all about cost, though. Wellence™ Gluten Free also delivers an excellent product result, time after time. Wellence™ Gluten Free forms films and stabilizes foams. This functionality improves the aeration of batters during mixing and produces finer crumb structures with more lift during baking. While other hydrocolloids lose their functionality on heating, Wellence™ Gluten Free forms a gel and mimics gluten’s ability to build a structure inside the product. This helps cakes and breads achieve their desired shape and volume, and retain these properties as the products cool.
Enduring moistness Wellence™ Gluten Free binds water in food products, resulting in better taste and enduring moistness. Ingredients
Xanthan
More for less
according to internal test and analysis in November 2010
The improved Wellence™ Gluten Free outperforms xanthan gum in terms of product quality, increased volume and better texture at comparable cost in use.
Process efficiency • Consistent dough handling reduces plant down time • Controls crumb structure and volume which prevents collapse during baking to reduce waste • Provides enduring moistness to extend shelf life
Egg + Wellence™ Gluten Free
Rice flour
Salt
Wellence™ Gluten Free offers the following benefits:
Egg + Xanthan
Xanthan
Wellence™ Gluten Free
Rice flour
33.45 %
33.45 %
Potato starch
10.00 %
10.00 %
Tapioca starch
10.00 %
10.00 %
Sugar
2.40 %
2.40 %
Oil
2.60 %
2.60 %
Salt
0.50 %
0.50 %
0%
0.85 %
1.00 %
0%
Wellence™ Gluten Free Xanthan Gum Instant dry yeast Warm water Total Specific vol. (cm3/g) Height (cm)
1.00 %
1.00 %
39.05 %
39.05 %
100.00 %
100.00 %
1.97
4.04
4
8
What does that mean for you? The demand for gluten free foods is on the rise with increasing numbers of people being affected by celiac disease. Others are eliminating gluten through personal choice. Wellence™ Gluten Free allows you to offer them gluten free products, at lower cost without having to compromise on taste or texture. Best of all, we’ll support your implementation with our technical expertise and with sample formulations that demonstrate our product’s performance.
according to internal test and analysis in June 2011
-65%
What does this mean for consumers? 1.5 % HPMC 9.5 cm
Xanthan WELLENCETM gum Gluten free
Other HPMC
Xanthan gum + egg
WELLENCETM Gluten free (no xanthan gum, reduced egg)
0,75 % HPMC 7 cm
WellenceTM Gluten Free 9.6 cm
according to test and analysis by a consultant in August 2010
• Farewell to flat and stodgy or dry and tasteless gluten free food options • Peace of mind: plant-based, not animal-based • Dietary needs satisfied without compromise • Prices comparable with products containing gluten
These findings have been validated in a broad range of bakery applications including pizza, muffins and bread.
*according to internal test and analysis in November 2010
01 Food & Nutrition technical bulletin
®TMTrademark of The Dow Chemical Company (“Dow”) or an affiliated company of Dow
Food & Nutrition technical bulletin 02
WELLENCE Fat Replacement
TM
Smart ingredient, multiple uses, maximum benefit Getting reduced-fat or non-fat foods to look and taste like full-fat versions can be a challenge—often forcing formulators to add a combination of ingredients to replicate the qualities associated with the edible fats and oils that have been removed.
We have an alternative approach to help you create the reduced- or fat-free products that people want to eat.
Standard
With food ingredient Wellence™ Fat Replacement — and our scientific savvy, Dow Wolff Cellulosics can help you make healthier foods that retain great flavor and are light on guilt. You can formulate meats, dairy, and bakery products that not only look appealing but taste great…with less unhealthy fats. Now that’s one delicious way we can trim our waistlines and make people’s everyday lives a little more healthful.
Wellence™ Fat Replacement*
0,4% Wellence™ Fat Replacement
0,75% Wellence™ Fat Replacement
Create the low- and non-fat foods your customers want Wellence™ Fat Replacement can be used to make healthier sausages, frankfurters, veggie burgers, muffins, cakes, dairy, and other products by replacing saturated and trans fats with healthier alternatives—reducing fat by up to 60% in meat products and up to 50% in baked goods.
Mimics the feel and performance of products with edible fats • Allows you to precisely control your formulation viscosity so you can imitate the distinctive texture and mouth-feel of fats in reduced-fat foods • Provides a strong “bite” and succulence to the finished product • Provides velvety texture and stability for restaurant style soups and sauces • Helps retain moisture in food products through hydrophilic polymers and thermal gelation properties • Forms firm and stable emulsions when combined with liquid oils, which helps you create juicy sausages and moist muffins with increased volume and crumb structure but without the added fat
03 Food & Nutrition technical bulletin
®TMTrademark of The Dow Chemical Company (“Dow”) or an affiliated company of Dow
*Pictures of internal tests
Food & Nutrition technical bulletin 04
Smart ingredient, multiple uses, maximum benefit
• Prevents sauces from thinning out or fillings from boiling out during cooking • Stabilizes products and controls ice crystal growth during freezing and thawing—giving fillings uniform consistency even through freeze/thaw cycles • Keeps icings and glazes intact and in place on products • Make products more acid-stable • Prevents the syneresis (the separation of fluid from a gel or solid) that often occurs in dairy products during storage—maintaining product properties through shelf life
Easy-to-use • Permits precise control of formulation by providing a range of viscosities • Hydrates readily at cool or cold temperatures to make dissolution easy at lower temperatures • Replaces or complements other gums • Allows creation of a “matrix” emulsion, which enables the use of healthy liquid oils (like sunflower, olive, or Omega-9 oils) in place of saturated fat or hydrogenated oils
REFERENCE SAUSAGE (KG)
LOW FAT SAUSAGE 30% FAT REDUCTION (KG)
Lean pork meat / Pork III
40
40
Pork chin
20
20
Pork fat
20
–
–
30
Ice / Water
20
10
TOTAL
100
100
INGREDIENTS
WellenceTM Fat Replacement emulsion
DRY INGREDIENTS Phosphates
0,3
0,3
Salts + curing agents
1,8
1,8
Anti-oxidants
0,1
0,1
Spices + flavor (enhancers)
1,5
1,5
Starch
4,0
4,0
TOTAL
107,7
107,7
WELLENCE™ FAT REPLACEMENT EMULSION INGREDIENTS
KG
Ice / Water
74
Fat / Vegetable oil
20
WellenceTM Fat Replacement emulsion
6
ACCORDING TO INTERNAL TEST AND ANALYSIS
WELLENCE™ FAT REPLACEMENT EMULSION ENABLES THE USE OF LESS EXPENSIVE FAT SOURCES AND ENABLES THE REDUCTION OF LEAN MEAT COST SAVINGS OF 15 TO 20% ARE POSSIBLE
Cost Effective
REFERENCE SAUSAGE (KG)
LOW COST SAUSAGE 15-20% COST REDUCTION (KG)
Lean pork meat / Pork III
35
20
MDM
10
10
Pork chin
15
–
Pork fat
25
18
Skin emulsion (50:50 water:skin)
15
27
–
25
100
100
INGREDIENTS
• Enables the use of less expensive fat sources • Allows for the reduction of lean meat, for a potential cost savings of 15 to 20% • Improves yield of baked seafood products
WellenceTM Fat Replacement emulsion
YIELD IMPROVEMENT* OF SEAFOODS BAKED WITH POWDERED GLAZE CONTAINING 1.5% WELLENCE™ FAT REPLACEMENT
Yield improvement, %
30 25
20.0%
20 15 10
9.0%
7.7%
5
TOTAL ICE / WATER + DRY INGREDIENTS
Shrimp
Cod
*Compared to incoated controm samplers
ACCORDING TO INTERNAL TEST AND ANALYSIS
05 Food & Nutrition technical bulletin
Orange Roughy
Unlike conventional food gums, Wellence™ Fat Replacement has the unique ability to gel upon heating. By providing a barrier to moisture loss during the baking and cooling processes, the thermal gelation property further enhances both moisture retention and moisture distribution in baked products. In microwave baking in particular, thermal gelation contributes to more uniform vertical distribution of moisture through the product. The effect of our food gums on the structure and texture of a microwaveable cake product is illustrated in Figure 1 and Figure 2. As Figure 1 shows, cake texture (as measured by compressive force) improves markedly as the level of Wellence™ Fat Replacement increases. Figure 2 illustrates that the addition of 2% Wellence™ Fat Replacement (flour weight basis), without adding extra water, results in optimal cake height.
FIGURE 1 TEXTURE (COMPRESSIVE FORCE) VS. LEVEL OF WELLENCE™ FAT REPLACEMENT FOOD GUM IN CHOCOLATE CAKE FORMULA 540 520 500 480 460 440
0
30
25
Phosphates
0.4
0.2
Salts + curing agents
2.5
2.5
Sugars
0.5
0.5
Anti-oxidants
0.1
0.1
Spices + flavor (enhancers)
1.0
1.1
Proteins
2.3
3.5
–
0.1
Starch
2.0
3.5
TOTAL
138.8
136.5
WELLENCE™ FAT REPLACEMENT EMULSION INGREDIENTS
KG
Ice / Water
76
Fat / Vegetable oil
20
WellenceTM Fat Replacement emulsion
4
1
2
3
4
Gum level, %
ACCORDING TO INTERNAL TEST AND ANALYSIS
FIGURE 2 CAKE HEIGHT VS. LEVEL OF WELLENCE™ FAT REPLACEMENT FOOD GUM AND ADDED WATER IN REDUCED-FAT CHOCOLATE CAKE FORMULA
46 44 42 40 38
25
30
20
36 34
Ice / Water
Hydrocolloids
0
Unique Thermal Gelation Property Helps Prevent Moisture Loss
Compressive force, lbs
WELLENCE™ FAT REPLACEMENT EMULSION IS USED TO REPLACE PORK FAT, RESULTING IN A FAT REDUCTION OF 30%
Cake height, mm
Maintains product integrity
15 0
10 1
2
5 3
Gum level, % (Flour Weight Basis)
4
0
Added moisture, % (Flour Weight Basis)
ACCORDING TO INTERNAL TEST AND ANALYSIS
ACCORDING TO INTERNAL TEST AND ANALYSIS
®TMTrademark of The Dow Chemical Company (“Dow”) or an affiliated company of Dow
Food & Nutrition technical bulletin 06
Smart ingredient, multiple uses, maximum benefit
Wellence™ Fat Replacement Wellence™ Fat Replacement forms soft, fluid gels upon heating above 158-194°F (70-90°C). These pourable gels help in maintaining viscosity in fluid systems as they are heated and can reduce boilout in fillings. Our gums provide a number of benefits for your development: • Most tolerant to high concentrations of sugars and salts • Provide the best freeze/thaw stability in frozen foods • Contribute to replacement of fat in cakes due to their interfacial activity and moisture retention properties • Hydrate readily at cool or cold temperatures; no heating is needed to achieve dissolution. • Function at low usage levels (
®TMTrademark of The Dow Chemical Company (“Dow”) or an affiliated company of Dow
WELLENCE Gluten Free
TM
Great tasting gluten free baked products Affordable high quality gluten free baked products can now be achieved using Dow Wolff Cellulosics’ food ingredient Wellence™ Gluten Free. The wide variety of baked products allows consumers to enjoy gluten free baked products every day.
Cost in Use
Ingredients
The improved Wellence™ Gluten Free achieves better results in increased volume and better texture at significantly reduced egg content (up to 65% reduction). Lower egg levels can lead to significant cost in use reduction.
31.6000 %
34.2300 %
Potato starch
12.4000 %
12.4000 %
Tapioca starch
4.1000 %
4.1000 %
Sugar
3.7000%
3.7000 %
Yeast
0.5600 %
0.5600 %
Xanthan Gum Wellence™ Gluten Free Warm milk Butter
• Broader consumer acceptance, high quality end product mimicking gluten in baked products • Exceptional performance vs. xanthan gum at comparable cost in use • Significant cost advantage versus competitive products • Reduces costs through low egg content formulation and minimizes risk of profit erosion due to egg price volatility
17% Egg / 0.23% Xanthan
5.6% Egg / 0.7% WellenceTM Gluten Free
COST IN USE
AMOUNT OF EGG USED*
0.5600 %
0.5600 %
0.2300 %
0.0000 %
0.0000 %
0.7000 %
23.8500 %
22.1500 %
6.000 %
6.000 %
Whole egg
17.0000 %
5.6000 %
TOTAL
100.0000 %
100.0000 %
WellenceTM Gluten Free
Wellence™ Gluten Free delivers cost in use savings of up to 50% compared to current leading solutions.
It’s not all about cost, though. Wellence™ Gluten Free also delivers an excellent product result, time after time. Wellence™ Gluten Free forms films and stabilizes foams. This functionality improves the aeration of batters during mixing and produces finer crumb structures with more lift during baking. While other hydrocolloids lose their functionality on heating, Wellence™ Gluten Free forms a gel and mimics gluten’s ability to build a structure inside the product. This helps cakes and breads achieve their desired shape and volume, and retain these properties as the products cool.
Enduring moistness Wellence™ Gluten Free binds water in food products, resulting in better taste and enduring moistness. Ingredients
Xanthan
More for less
according to internal test and analysis in November 2010
The improved Wellence™ Gluten Free outperforms xanthan gum in terms of product quality, increased volume and better texture at comparable cost in use.
Process efficiency • Consistent dough handling reduces plant down time • Controls crumb structure and volume which prevents collapse during baking to reduce waste • Provides enduring moistness to extend shelf life
Egg + Wellence™ Gluten Free
Rice flour
Salt
Wellence™ Gluten Free offers the following benefits:
Egg + Xanthan
Xanthan
Wellence™ Gluten Free
Rice flour
33.45 %
33.45 %
Potato starch
10.00 %
10.00 %
Tapioca starch
10.00 %
10.00 %
Sugar
2.40 %
2.40 %
Oil
2.60 %
2.60 %
Salt
0.50 %
0.50 %
0%
0.85 %
1.00 %
0%
Wellence™ Gluten Free Xanthan Gum Instant dry yeast Warm water Total Specific vol. (cm3/g) Height (cm)
1.00 %
1.00 %
39.05 %
39.05 %
100.00 %
100.00 %
1.97
4.04
4
8
What does that mean for you? The demand for gluten free foods is on the rise with increasing numbers of people being affected by celiac disease. Others are eliminating gluten through personal choice. Wellence™ Gluten Free allows you to offer them gluten free products, at lower cost without having to compromise on taste or texture. Best of all, we’ll support your implementation with our technical expertise and with sample formulations that demonstrate our product’s performance.
according to internal test and analysis in June 2011
-65%
What does this mean for consumers? 1.5 % HPMC 9.5 cm
Xanthan WELLENCETM gum Gluten free
Other HPMC
Xanthan gum + egg
WELLENCETM Gluten free (no xanthan gum, reduced egg)
0,75 % HPMC 7 cm
WellenceTM Gluten Free 9.6 cm
according to test and analysis by a consultant in August 2010
• Farewell to flat and stodgy or dry and tasteless gluten free food options • Peace of mind: plant-based, not animal-based • Dietary needs satisfied without compromise • Prices comparable with products containing gluten
These findings have been validated in a broad range of bakery applications including pizza, muffins and bread.
*according to internal test and analysis in November 2010
01 Food & Nutrition technical bulletin
®TMTrademark of The Dow Chemical Company (“Dow”) or an affiliated company of Dow
Food & Nutrition technical bulletin 02
WELLENCE Fat Replacement
TM
Smart ingredient, multiple uses, maximum benefit Getting reduced-fat or non-fat foods to look and taste like full-fat versions can be a challenge—often forcing formulators to add a combination of ingredients to replicate the qualities associated with the edible fats and oils that have been removed.
We have an alternative approach to help you create the reduced- or fat-free products that people want to eat.
Standard
With food ingredient Wellence™ Fat Replacement — and our scientific savvy, Dow Wolff Cellulosics can help you make healthier foods that retain great flavor and are light on guilt. You can formulate meats, dairy, and bakery products that not only look appealing but taste great…with less unhealthy fats. Now that’s one delicious way we can trim our waistlines and make people’s everyday lives a little more healthful.
Wellence™ Fat Replacement*
0,4% Wellence™ Fat Replacement
0,75% Wellence™ Fat Replacement
Create the low- and non-fat foods your customers want Wellence™ Fat Replacement can be used to make healthier sausages, frankfurters, veggie burgers, muffins, cakes, dairy, and other products by replacing saturated and trans fats with healthier alternatives—reducing fat by up to 60% in meat products and up to 50% in baked goods.
Mimics the feel and performance of products with edible fats • Allows you to precisely control your formulation viscosity so you can imitate the distinctive texture and mouth-feel of fats in reduced-fat foods • Provides a strong “bite” and succulence to the finished product • Provides velvety texture and stability for restaurant style soups and sauces • Helps retain moisture in food products through hydrophilic polymers and thermal gelation properties • Forms firm and stable emulsions when combined with liquid oils, which helps you create juicy sausages and moist muffins with increased volume and crumb structure but without the added fat
03 Food & Nutrition technical bulletin
®TMTrademark of The Dow Chemical Company (“Dow”) or an affiliated company of Dow
*Pictures of internal tests
Food & Nutrition technical bulletin 04
Smart ingredient, multiple uses, maximum benefit
• Prevents sauces from thinning out or fillings from boiling out during cooking • Stabilizes products and controls ice crystal growth during freezing and thawing—giving fillings uniform consistency even through freeze/thaw cycles • Keeps icings and glazes intact and in place on products • Make products more acid-stable • Prevents the syneresis (the separation of fluid from a gel or solid) that often occurs in dairy products during storage—maintaining product properties through shelf life
Easy-to-use • Permits precise control of formulation by providing a range of viscosities • Hydrates readily at cool or cold temperatures to make dissolution easy at lower temperatures • Replaces or complements other gums • Allows creation of a “matrix” emulsion, which enables the use of healthy liquid oils (like sunflower, olive, or Omega-9 oils) in place of saturated fat or hydrogenated oils
REFERENCE SAUSAGE (KG)
LOW FAT SAUSAGE 30% FAT REDUCTION (KG)
Lean pork meat / Pork III
40
40
Pork chin
20
20
Pork fat
20
–
–
30
Ice / Water
20
10
TOTAL
100
100
INGREDIENTS
WellenceTM Fat Replacement emulsion
DRY INGREDIENTS Phosphates
0,3
0,3
Salts + curing agents
1,8
1,8
Anti-oxidants
0,1
0,1
Spices + flavor (enhancers)
1,5
1,5
Starch
4,0
4,0
TOTAL
107,7
107,7
WELLENCE™ FAT REPLACEMENT EMULSION INGREDIENTS
KG
Ice / Water
74
Fat / Vegetable oil
20
WellenceTM Fat Replacement emulsion
6
ACCORDING TO INTERNAL TEST AND ANALYSIS
WELLENCE™ FAT REPLACEMENT EMULSION ENABLES THE USE OF LESS EXPENSIVE FAT SOURCES AND ENABLES THE REDUCTION OF LEAN MEAT COST SAVINGS OF 15 TO 20% ARE POSSIBLE
Cost Effective
REFERENCE SAUSAGE (KG)
LOW COST SAUSAGE 15-20% COST REDUCTION (KG)
Lean pork meat / Pork III
35
20
MDM
10
10
Pork chin
15
–
Pork fat
25
18
Skin emulsion (50:50 water:skin)
15
27
–
25
100
100
INGREDIENTS
• Enables the use of less expensive fat sources • Allows for the reduction of lean meat, for a potential cost savings of 15 to 20% • Improves yield of baked seafood products
WellenceTM Fat Replacement emulsion
YIELD IMPROVEMENT* OF SEAFOODS BAKED WITH POWDERED GLAZE CONTAINING 1.5% WELLENCE™ FAT REPLACEMENT
Yield improvement, %
30 25
20.0%
20 15 10
9.0%
7.7%
5
TOTAL ICE / WATER + DRY INGREDIENTS
Shrimp
Cod
*Compared to incoated controm samplers
ACCORDING TO INTERNAL TEST AND ANALYSIS
05 Food & Nutrition technical bulletin
Orange Roughy
Unlike conventional food gums, Wellence™ Fat Replacement has the unique ability to gel upon heating. By providing a barrier to moisture loss during the baking and cooling processes, the thermal gelation property further enhances both moisture retention and moisture distribution in baked products. In microwave baking in particular, thermal gelation contributes to more uniform vertical distribution of moisture through the product. The effect of our food gums on the structure and texture of a microwaveable cake product is illustrated in Figure 1 and Figure 2. As Figure 1 shows, cake texture (as measured by compressive force) improves markedly as the level of Wellence™ Fat Replacement increases. Figure 2 illustrates that the addition of 2% Wellence™ Fat Replacement (flour weight basis), without adding extra water, results in optimal cake height.
FIGURE 1 TEXTURE (COMPRESSIVE FORCE) VS. LEVEL OF WELLENCE™ FAT REPLACEMENT FOOD GUM IN CHOCOLATE CAKE FORMULA 540 520 500 480 460 440
0
30
25
Phosphates
0.4
0.2
Salts + curing agents
2.5
2.5
Sugars
0.5
0.5
Anti-oxidants
0.1
0.1
Spices + flavor (enhancers)
1.0
1.1
Proteins
2.3
3.5
–
0.1
Starch
2.0
3.5
TOTAL
138.8
136.5
WELLENCE™ FAT REPLACEMENT EMULSION INGREDIENTS
KG
Ice / Water
76
Fat / Vegetable oil
20
WellenceTM Fat Replacement emulsion
4
1
2
3
4
Gum level, %
ACCORDING TO INTERNAL TEST AND ANALYSIS
FIGURE 2 CAKE HEIGHT VS. LEVEL OF WELLENCE™ FAT REPLACEMENT FOOD GUM AND ADDED WATER IN REDUCED-FAT CHOCOLATE CAKE FORMULA
46 44 42 40 38
25
30
20
36 34
Ice / Water
Hydrocolloids
0
Unique Thermal Gelation Property Helps Prevent Moisture Loss
Compressive force, lbs
WELLENCE™ FAT REPLACEMENT EMULSION IS USED TO REPLACE PORK FAT, RESULTING IN A FAT REDUCTION OF 30%
Cake height, mm
Maintains product integrity
15 0
10 1
2
5 3
Gum level, % (Flour Weight Basis)
4
0
Added moisture, % (Flour Weight Basis)
ACCORDING TO INTERNAL TEST AND ANALYSIS
ACCORDING TO INTERNAL TEST AND ANALYSIS
®TMTrademark of The Dow Chemical Company (“Dow”) or an affiliated company of Dow
Food & Nutrition technical bulletin 06
Smart ingredient, multiple uses, maximum benefit
Wellence™ Fat Replacement Wellence™ Fat Replacement forms soft, fluid gels upon heating above 158-194°F (70-90°C). These pourable gels help in maintaining viscosity in fluid systems as they are heated and can reduce boilout in fillings. Our gums provide a number of benefits for your development: • Most tolerant to high concentrations of sugars and salts • Provide the best freeze/thaw stability in frozen foods • Contribute to replacement of fat in cakes due to their interfacial activity and moisture retention properties • Hydrate readily at cool or cold temperatures; no heating is needed to achieve dissolution. • Function at low usage levels (
