GGR271 Mid-term study Why do research? -Understanding/Explaining ...
GGR271 Mid-term study Why do research? -Understanding/Explaining the social world -systematic research IS different to opinion or journalism Quantitative Methods – those that seek to create generalizations about the social universe through numerical abstractions -deductive approach to the relationship between theory and research, theory testing is a prime objective Tends to be deductivist (hypothesis testing) and objectivist (assuming over-arching social reality) and incorporates a natural science model (one influenced by positivism – natural science) Qualitative Methods – a set of data-gathering techniques, means of analysis, and modes of thinking that shun the emphasis on quantification, a strict distinction between the observer and the observed, and overzealous generalization. Inquiry that uses mainly words, images, and other non-numerical symbols as data and involves little or no quantification Determines how individuals interpret the social world. Tends to be inductivist, (theory after data collection) constructivist and interpretivist (subjectively based) False Duality? – Much of social research uses both quantitative and qualitative. -Poles, not absolute categories Characteristics of ‘good quality’ research •Appropriateness of approach •Relevance – Does it matter whether we look at this or not? •Feasibility – Can it be done? •Accuracy –Will research produce true findings? •Objectivity – Will it be a fair and balanced picture? •Reliability – If we did it again would it still be the same? Would peoples answers be the same? (Replication – are others able to repeat all or parts of the study?) •Internal Validity – Accurate, Honest (is there confidence that the cause and effect relationships are indeed as represented in the research) (is the independent variable responsible for the dependent variable? Other causes?)
-independent variable (occurs first) affecting -> dependent variable (cause of independent) •External Validity – Can this be applied to a wider setting? (do findings actually reflect that of a population/real world?) (is the research design or setting too artificial) Empiricism – School of thought Empirical – Collection of Data
Two Epistemological Positions -Epistemology is the study about what we can know and how we can acquire that knowledge. Positivism Interpretivism -(TYPICALLY QUANTITATIVE) - Natural science methods of social research (chemist/physicist) -SCIENCE -Value free -Theory generates hypotheses -basis for the formulation of laws that EXPLAIN human behavior -distinction between science and normative statements
(TYPICALLY QUALITATIVE) -Knowledge is local and subject to change -SOCIAL SIENCE -Multiple truths and voices -seek to UNDERSTAND human behavior -cannot separate the researcher from the researched -Research should be action oriented
Two Ontological Positions -Ontology is the study of how we exist, two contrary forms of ontology. Objectivism -(TYPICALLY QUANTITATIVE) -Social phenomena have an existence independent of social actors or their perceptions. -Social phenomena exist beyond the reach of individuals -(eg. Organizations have rules and regulations that possess an external reality) -Pre-existing, to be discovered
Constructivism (TYPICALLY QUALITATIVE) -Social phenomena and their meaning produced through interactions (No preexisting order) -Researcher presents only one reality of the world -social phenomena and their meanings are continually being created by social actors
Positivism – Natural science methods of social research (same approach as a chemist or physicist) Value-free
External reality which is perceived uniformly Theory is use prior to research – DEDUCTIVE Data and observations are used to produce laws Interpretivism – Knowledge is local and contingent Multiple truths and voices Interpretation and meanings of the world Viewed by actors is most important aspect of social reality There is no world outside the language and concepts we use to describe it Qualitative Methods -Interviews -Focus groups -Case studies -Ethnography/digital enthography Explore ways to carry out high quality research
Structured (Systematic) Observation: Strength and Weaknesses A research method in which the researchers follow explicitly formulated rules regarding not only what they should look for, but also when and where and how they should record what they have observed Strengths Weaknesses 1. Examine underlying issues not 1. Ethical Considerations accessible through a survey 2. Inaccurate coding imposed on (some questions impossible to human behavior ask/answer) 3. Not able to necessarily 2. Examine gap between state and understand intentions and actual behaviour motivations 4. Small bits of data may obscure big picture
Primary and Secondary Data Primary Data -collected by investigator Advantages -Can tailor data collected to research questions -Ensure high quality, reliability and consistency
Disadvantages -Time consuming and costly -Obtrusive: Ethical considerations
Secondary Data -Data collected and processed by sources other than the researcher -Have not been produced specifically for the purpose of social research -Preserved so that they may become available for analysis (government documents, stats in corporate documents, views in media reports web pages etc.) Advantages -Enables research into topics difficult to access by primary research -Unobtrusive method – lower change of harm -lower time and cost, more data analysis -high quality dataset
Disadvantages -No control over data quality or variables -Authenticity -Large data sets often difficult to become familiar with -absence of key variables, difficult to fill in blanks
Criteria for assessing evidence quality •Authenticity: is evidence genuine •Credibility: free from error or distortion •Representativeness: is evidence typical of its kind, if not, is the extent of its uniqueness known •Meaning: Is evidence clear and comprehensible Academic vs Popular Sources (pretty self explanatory) Peer review process – double blind peer review (reviewer does not know author and vice versa) Hierarchy of Source Quality (1. Being lowest) 1. Opinion (newspaper editorials, magazines etc.) 2. Factual articles in popular magazines/newspaper 3. Expert Reports (government commissioned, NGO, interest group etc. 4. Non Peer Reviewed Journals 5. Double blind, Peer reviewed Journals (does not mean everyone agrees) Basic Research vs Applied Research Basic -Research for the development of knowledge -Theory development
Applied -Research done to answer a question for the benefit of an institution, individual, or movement.
Research Design: Provides a framework for the collection and analysis of data
-express causal relations -show interconnections over time -understand behavior within given social contexts -infer from small samples to large population
Research Method: A technique for collecting data. -Many techniques available (eg. In-depth interviews; survey focus group; etc)
Research Designs 1. Experimental Design – Two groups are established and compared before and after an event/intervention. (Experiment group and control group) (Ethical issues – potentially dangerous/withhold cure)
2. Cross Sectional Surveys – The collection of data on more than one case at a single point in time in order to produce a body of data that facilitates comparison and examinations for associations. More than one case, Single Point in time, Data to facilitate comparison. - Using a cross sectional design means that researchers will collect data on more than one case (families, people, countries) at a single point in time (multiple survey respondents in one day) in order to create a set of data that will give comparisons and facilitate an examination for associations. An example of data that would facilitate comparisons is a systematic method like the 1-5 Likert scale. Other cross sectional design methods include structured interviewing and structured observation. There are no before and after assessments. In this design observations are taken at one point in time. Data are collected to on more than two variables so that when they are examined patterns of association will emerge. Sometimes this method has the result of creating an ambiguity about the direction of causal influence.
3. Longitudinal Design – An extension of cross sectional studies with trace changes in individual cases over time. Sample is surveyed once, and then again later. Panel study: sample group of random people then sampled at least twice Cohort study: cohort selected who share similar characteristics sample at least twice (not necessarily the same people) Issues: costl time consuming; getting same people an be difficult – often carried out by government - Often used in geography or sociology, this research design traces individual changes over time. The sample is surveyed once and then again at least once at a later time e.g. T1, T2, T3. There are two basic types of longitudinal design: A panel study consists of a sample group, which is randomly selected from a population and the same group is sampled on again. A cohort study consists of samples groups who share the same characteristics and then sampled on again at least once. A longitudinal design has better insight
in the time order of variables therefore does not have the issue of ambiguity between causal influences like the cross sectional design. Both studies have the problem of samples dying or moving away. There is also the problem of longitudinal studies affecting respondents’ behaviour.
4. Case Study Design- Study of a single location: community; company; project, etc. – Aimed at providing in-depth examination of an issue: identify unique aspects. – Not random sample, purposely selected. Different types of cases Critical Case; Unique case Convenience case Comparative cases - This design involves the study of a specific community, location, or a company. Its goal is to make an in-depth examination of a particular issue. It is not a random sample. In a case study, a mainly inductive approach is taken. There are 3 types of cases: 1. Critical case – a clear hypothesis and the researcher determines if by the case study this hypothesis stands or not. 2. Extreme case – clinical studies that seek to change the way the subject is thought about. 3. Revelatory case – an opportunity for the researcher to observe something that has yet to be studied. A standard criticism of the case study is that it cannot be generalized and its weakness is the problem of less attention being paid when there are two or more cases involved.
Ethical Issues in Data Collection -Research, both academic and professional, threatens potential ethical issues -Potential harms from taking part: Physical, Emotional, Career progression, retribution -Harm for respondent as well as researcher -Researchers do not have legal entitlement to any information above or beyond that of the general public. Interviewing public personalities -Disclosure requirments – respect for free and informed consent, right to privacy -Consider level and degree to which personality is in public eye -balance need for confidentiality vs disclosure
Why Survey? -Attitudes and beliefs -Preferences -Behaviours -Predictions -Facts
Surveying can be better than alternatives -supplement secondary data -data for experiments -key informant interviews -focus groups.
Type of Survey/Sampling
-Four main concepts are at the core of all research: •Reliability/Precision: Do we get the same result consistently if we carry out the same test •Validity/Accuracy: Does a test actually measure what it claims to measure.
Quantitative Sampling Methods Simple Random Sample -Completely random sample from a population, no structure Systematic Sample -Some structure from a population. Every “Nth” person. Stratified Random Sampling -Divide population based on key characteristics (age, gender, income etc.) -Then select proper proportion from each category. Multi-Stage Cluster Sampling -Multi-stage approach -Eg. Divide country into regions, select random regions, select random people in those regions etc… narrow it down.
Qualitative Sampling Methods Snowball Sampling -Used when sampling hard to reach or hidden populations -Begin with the few respondents who are available, then ask these respondents to recommend others -Good for stigmatized and elite groups -Ignores ‘isolates’, can’t generalize Theoretical Sampling -Used for ethnographic research: combines convenience and snowball sampling. -{participants are chosen progressively, during data collection -multiple phases of sampling essentially Opportunity Sampling -One group in a certain section, convenient to the researcher
Sources of Error -Sample Size -Non-response -Sample Heterogeneity -Incomplete sample frame
Research Methods 1. Questionnaire One kind of method is the preset instrument, such as questionnaire. This is the same as a structured interview except without the interviewer. - Questionaire vs. Interview: It is cheaper and quicker to administer than the interviews however the results may not come back as quickly as questionnaires are usually sent through the mail. The questionnaire will also have a greater risk of missing data and it is difficult to ask a lot of questions via response sheet.
2. Structured Interviews Precision of sample is often replaced with a less defined series of benchmarks. Interviews are well designed for asking ‘why’. Personal interview: Mixing up different types of questions is most effective when conducting interviews. Using introductory questions and then a follow up. - Truth is dependent on perspective and is often determined by the interviewer. Other weaknesses include the inability to ask the right questions and if the informant is willing to be truthful.
3. Participant Observations This method is less formalized. - Strengths in Structured Observation: This method is good for examining underlying issues that are not accessible by surveys. Observations can also bridge the gap between stated and actual behavior. - Weaknesses: inaccurate judgment on human behavior, not able to understand intentions and motivations.
4. Survey When using surveys, researchers must consider what the survey is being used for, the compatibility of answers, and if the questions will be open ended or close ended (single response). - Web surveys are advantageous because it taps a niche of Internet users about certain topics like cyber dating. They are also low cost and these surveys can also be programmed with filter questions that make the process faster by allowing respondents to skip to the questions that apply to them. - Disadvantages include low response rate, restricted to people who use computers, and there is a chance that it may be answered multiple times by the same informant.
Questionnaire/Interview Research Social Surveys -range from highly interactive to tightly controlled questionnaires -either qualitative/quantitative Types of errors – poorly worded questions, how question was asked, misunderstanding, lapse of memory, bad recording of info, how information is processed…. Administration of survey -face to face -mail -telephone -internet
Interviewing in Practice Interviews: an extension of survey techniques. -tend to be more ‘open-ended’ than surveys -designed for asking ‘why’ Question types -Mix of all types most effective Interviewing Public Figures •Preperation •Meeting Location
•Tone •Question Ordering •Confidentiality •Harm •Publication of findings •Public response to your findings •Ethics • Being non-judgmental •Let people talk (even if they ramble, open ended-ness can be good)
-independent variable (occurs first) affecting -> dependent variable (cause of independent) •External Validity – Can this be applied to a wider setting? (do findings actually reflect that of a population/real world?) (is the research design or setting too artificial) Empiricism – School of thought Empirical – Collection of Data
Two Epistemological Positions -Epistemology is the study about what we can know and how we can acquire that knowledge. Positivism Interpretivism -(TYPICALLY QUANTITATIVE) - Natural science methods of social research (chemist/physicist) -SCIENCE -Value free -Theory generates hypotheses -basis for the formulation of laws that EXPLAIN human behavior -distinction between science and normative statements
(TYPICALLY QUALITATIVE) -Knowledge is local and subject to change -SOCIAL SIENCE -Multiple truths and voices -seek to UNDERSTAND human behavior -cannot separate the researcher from the researched -Research should be action oriented
Two Ontological Positions -Ontology is the study of how we exist, two contrary forms of ontology. Objectivism -(TYPICALLY QUANTITATIVE) -Social phenomena have an existence independent of social actors or their perceptions. -Social phenomena exist beyond the reach of individuals -(eg. Organizations have rules and regulations that possess an external reality) -Pre-existing, to be discovered
Constructivism (TYPICALLY QUALITATIVE) -Social phenomena and their meaning produced through interactions (No preexisting order) -Researcher presents only one reality of the world -social phenomena and their meanings are continually being created by social actors
Positivism – Natural science methods of social research (same approach as a chemist or physicist) Value-free
External reality which is perceived uniformly Theory is use prior to research – DEDUCTIVE Data and observations are used to produce laws Interpretivism – Knowledge is local and contingent Multiple truths and voices Interpretation and meanings of the world Viewed by actors is most important aspect of social reality There is no world outside the language and concepts we use to describe it Qualitative Methods -Interviews -Focus groups -Case studies -Ethnography/digital enthography Explore ways to carry out high quality research
Structured (Systematic) Observation: Strength and Weaknesses A research method in which the researchers follow explicitly formulated rules regarding not only what they should look for, but also when and where and how they should record what they have observed Strengths Weaknesses 1. Examine underlying issues not 1. Ethical Considerations accessible through a survey 2. Inaccurate coding imposed on (some questions impossible to human behavior ask/answer) 3. Not able to necessarily 2. Examine gap between state and understand intentions and actual behaviour motivations 4. Small bits of data may obscure big picture
Primary and Secondary Data Primary Data -collected by investigator Advantages -Can tailor data collected to research questions -Ensure high quality, reliability and consistency
Disadvantages -Time consuming and costly -Obtrusive: Ethical considerations
Secondary Data -Data collected and processed by sources other than the researcher -Have not been produced specifically for the purpose of social research -Preserved so that they may become available for analysis (government documents, stats in corporate documents, views in media reports web pages etc.) Advantages -Enables research into topics difficult to access by primary research -Unobtrusive method – lower change of harm -lower time and cost, more data analysis -high quality dataset
Disadvantages -No control over data quality or variables -Authenticity -Large data sets often difficult to become familiar with -absence of key variables, difficult to fill in blanks
Criteria for assessing evidence quality •Authenticity: is evidence genuine •Credibility: free from error or distortion •Representativeness: is evidence typical of its kind, if not, is the extent of its uniqueness known •Meaning: Is evidence clear and comprehensible Academic vs Popular Sources (pretty self explanatory) Peer review process – double blind peer review (reviewer does not know author and vice versa) Hierarchy of Source Quality (1. Being lowest) 1. Opinion (newspaper editorials, magazines etc.) 2. Factual articles in popular magazines/newspaper 3. Expert Reports (government commissioned, NGO, interest group etc. 4. Non Peer Reviewed Journals 5. Double blind, Peer reviewed Journals (does not mean everyone agrees) Basic Research vs Applied Research Basic -Research for the development of knowledge -Theory development
Applied -Research done to answer a question for the benefit of an institution, individual, or movement.
Research Design: Provides a framework for the collection and analysis of data
-express causal relations -show interconnections over time -understand behavior within given social contexts -infer from small samples to large population
Research Method: A technique for collecting data. -Many techniques available (eg. In-depth interviews; survey focus group; etc)
Research Designs 1. Experimental Design – Two groups are established and compared before and after an event/intervention. (Experiment group and control group) (Ethical issues – potentially dangerous/withhold cure)
2. Cross Sectional Surveys – The collection of data on more than one case at a single point in time in order to produce a body of data that facilitates comparison and examinations for associations. More than one case, Single Point in time, Data to facilitate comparison. - Using a cross sectional design means that researchers will collect data on more than one case (families, people, countries) at a single point in time (multiple survey respondents in one day) in order to create a set of data that will give comparisons and facilitate an examination for associations. An example of data that would facilitate comparisons is a systematic method like the 1-5 Likert scale. Other cross sectional design methods include structured interviewing and structured observation. There are no before and after assessments. In this design observations are taken at one point in time. Data are collected to on more than two variables so that when they are examined patterns of association will emerge. Sometimes this method has the result of creating an ambiguity about the direction of causal influence.
3. Longitudinal Design – An extension of cross sectional studies with trace changes in individual cases over time. Sample is surveyed once, and then again later. Panel study: sample group of random people then sampled at least twice Cohort study: cohort selected who share similar characteristics sample at least twice (not necessarily the same people) Issues: costl time consuming; getting same people an be difficult – often carried out by government - Often used in geography or sociology, this research design traces individual changes over time. The sample is surveyed once and then again at least once at a later time e.g. T1, T2, T3. There are two basic types of longitudinal design: A panel study consists of a sample group, which is randomly selected from a population and the same group is sampled on again. A cohort study consists of samples groups who share the same characteristics and then sampled on again at least once. A longitudinal design has better insight
in the time order of variables therefore does not have the issue of ambiguity between causal influences like the cross sectional design. Both studies have the problem of samples dying or moving away. There is also the problem of longitudinal studies affecting respondents’ behaviour.
4. Case Study Design- Study of a single location: community; company; project, etc. – Aimed at providing in-depth examination of an issue: identify unique aspects. – Not random sample, purposely selected. Different types of cases Critical Case; Unique case Convenience case Comparative cases - This design involves the study of a specific community, location, or a company. Its goal is to make an in-depth examination of a particular issue. It is not a random sample. In a case study, a mainly inductive approach is taken. There are 3 types of cases: 1. Critical case – a clear hypothesis and the researcher determines if by the case study this hypothesis stands or not. 2. Extreme case – clinical studies that seek to change the way the subject is thought about. 3. Revelatory case – an opportunity for the researcher to observe something that has yet to be studied. A standard criticism of the case study is that it cannot be generalized and its weakness is the problem of less attention being paid when there are two or more cases involved.
Ethical Issues in Data Collection -Research, both academic and professional, threatens potential ethical issues -Potential harms from taking part: Physical, Emotional, Career progression, retribution -Harm for respondent as well as researcher -Researchers do not have legal entitlement to any information above or beyond that of the general public. Interviewing public personalities -Disclosure requirments – respect for free and informed consent, right to privacy -Consider level and degree to which personality is in public eye -balance need for confidentiality vs disclosure
Why Survey? -Attitudes and beliefs -Preferences -Behaviours -Predictions -Facts
Surveying can be better than alternatives -supplement secondary data -data for experiments -key informant interviews -focus groups.
Type of Survey/Sampling
-Four main concepts are at the core of all research: •Reliability/Precision: Do we get the same result consistently if we carry out the same test •Validity/Accuracy: Does a test actually measure what it claims to measure.
Quantitative Sampling Methods Simple Random Sample -Completely random sample from a population, no structure Systematic Sample -Some structure from a population. Every “Nth” person. Stratified Random Sampling -Divide population based on key characteristics (age, gender, income etc.) -Then select proper proportion from each category. Multi-Stage Cluster Sampling -Multi-stage approach -Eg. Divide country into regions, select random regions, select random people in those regions etc… narrow it down.
Qualitative Sampling Methods Snowball Sampling -Used when sampling hard to reach or hidden populations -Begin with the few respondents who are available, then ask these respondents to recommend others -Good for stigmatized and elite groups -Ignores ‘isolates’, can’t generalize Theoretical Sampling -Used for ethnographic research: combines convenience and snowball sampling. -{participants are chosen progressively, during data collection -multiple phases of sampling essentially Opportunity Sampling -One group in a certain section, convenient to the researcher
Sources of Error -Sample Size -Non-response -Sample Heterogeneity -Incomplete sample frame
Research Methods 1. Questionnaire One kind of method is the preset instrument, such as questionnaire. This is the same as a structured interview except without the interviewer. - Questionaire vs. Interview: It is cheaper and quicker to administer than the interviews however the results may not come back as quickly as questionnaires are usually sent through the mail. The questionnaire will also have a greater risk of missing data and it is difficult to ask a lot of questions via response sheet.
2. Structured Interviews Precision of sample is often replaced with a less defined series of benchmarks. Interviews are well designed for asking ‘why’. Personal interview: Mixing up different types of questions is most effective when conducting interviews. Using introductory questions and then a follow up. - Truth is dependent on perspective and is often determined by the interviewer. Other weaknesses include the inability to ask the right questions and if the informant is willing to be truthful.
3. Participant Observations This method is less formalized. - Strengths in Structured Observation: This method is good for examining underlying issues that are not accessible by surveys. Observations can also bridge the gap between stated and actual behavior. - Weaknesses: inaccurate judgment on human behavior, not able to understand intentions and motivations.
4. Survey When using surveys, researchers must consider what the survey is being used for, the compatibility of answers, and if the questions will be open ended or close ended (single response). - Web surveys are advantageous because it taps a niche of Internet users about certain topics like cyber dating. They are also low cost and these surveys can also be programmed with filter questions that make the process faster by allowing respondents to skip to the questions that apply to them. - Disadvantages include low response rate, restricted to people who use computers, and there is a chance that it may be answered multiple times by the same informant.
Questionnaire/Interview Research Social Surveys -range from highly interactive to tightly controlled questionnaires -either qualitative/quantitative Types of errors – poorly worded questions, how question was asked, misunderstanding, lapse of memory, bad recording of info, how information is processed…. Administration of survey -face to face -mail -telephone -internet
Interviewing in Practice Interviews: an extension of survey techniques. -tend to be more ‘open-ended’ than surveys -designed for asking ‘why’ Question types -Mix of all types most effective Interviewing Public Figures •Preperation •Meeting Location
•Tone •Question Ordering •Confidentiality •Harm •Publication of findings •Public response to your findings •Ethics • Being non-judgmental •Let people talk (even if they ramble, open ended-ness can be good)
