Photography 10/04/2012
Photography
10/04/2012
Realism and Formalism The Lumiere brothers considered founders of realist tradition of cinema Georges Melies founder of formalist tradition Realist films More about the content and subject and what is being shown than the form; try to preserve the illusion that their film world is unmanipulated Audience is watching like there is no camera Film makers want to hide the fact that the camera is there High premium is placed on simplicity, spontaneity, and directness View anything that takes focus away from the content of film as “suspicious” Ex: “Arrival of a train” by Lumiere bros Extreme form: documentaries Formalist Films Want you to know they are doing stuff to make the film happen Deliberately stylize and distort their material so that no one would mistake a manipulated image for the real thing They usually illicit an emotional response Subjective in terms of how the character would experience it Used as method of commenting on subject matter rather than just letting it unfold; have something to say about it Formalist are often referred to as expressionists because their selfexpression is at least as important as the subject matter itself Ex: “a trip to the moon” by Georges Milies Extreme form: avantgarde cinema
Classical Cinema a vague but convenient term used to designate the style of mainstream fiction films produced in America, roughly from the mid teens to the 1960s the classical paradigm is a movie strong in story, star, and production values, with a high level of technical achievement, and edited according to conventions of classical cutting The Shots Shots images that are recorded continuously from the time the camera starts to the time it stops. That is, an unedited strip of film. Frame the dividing line between the edges of the screen image and the enclosing darkness of the theater. Can also refer to a single photograph from the filmstrip 6 BASIC SHOT CATEGORIES 1. Medium shot a relatively close shot revealing the human figure from the knees or waist up 2. Closeup a detailed view of a person or object. A closeup of an actor usually includes only his or her head 3. Long shot A shot that includes an area within the image that roughly corresponds to the audience’s view of the area within the proscenium arch in the live theater 4. Extreme long shot A panoramic view of an exterior location, photographed from a great distance, often as far as a quartermile away 5. Full Shot a type of long shot that includes the human body in full, with the head near the top of the frame and the feet near the bottom 6. extreme close up/deep focus
a minutely detailed view of an object or person; an extreme close up of an actor generally only includes his or her eyes or mouth Establishing shots Usually an extreme long or long shot offered at the beginning of a scene, providing the viewer with the context of the subsequent closer shots Wideangle lens/short lens A lens that permits the camera to photograph a wider area than a normal lens. A side effect is its tendency to exaggerate perspective. Also used for deepfocus photography. The Angles Angle The camera’s angle of view relative to the subject being photographed. A high angle shot is photographed from above, a low angle from below the subject. The angles from which an object is photographed can often serve as an authorial commentary on the subject matter A slight angle can serve as a subtle form of emotional coloration An extreme angle can represent major meaning of an image The angle is determined by where the camera is placed, not the subject Realists tend to avoid extreme angles they mostly use eyelevel shots 56 feet off the ground (the way an observer would view a scene) Formalist directors are not always concerned with the clearest image of an object, but with the image that best captures its essential nature. Both directors know that the viewer tends to identify with the camera’s lens FIVE BASIC ANGLES IN CINEMA 1. Bird’s eye view a shot in which the camera photgraphs a scene from directly overhead most disorienting 2. Highangle shot a shot in which the subject is photographed from above
not so extreme, therefore not so disorienting 3. Eyelevel shot the placement of the camera 56 feet off the ground, corresponding to the height of an observer on the scene 4. lowangle shot a shot in which the subject is shot from below increase height and useful for suggesting verticality 5. Oblique angle/tilt shot a shot photographed by a tilted camera; when the image is projected on the screen, the subject itself seems to be tilted diagonal suggests imbalance Point of View shot (POV) Any shot that is taken from the vantage point of a character in the film, showing what the character sees Light and Dark Cinematographer aka director of photography of DP the artist or technician responsible for the lighting of a shot and the quality of the photography Take A variation of a specific shot. The final shot is often selected from a number of possible takes Genre A recognizable type of movie, characterized by certain preestablished conventions; a readymade narrative form Ex: westerns, thrillers, scifi, drama, ect. High Key
A style of lighting emphasizing bright and even illumination, with few conspicuous shadows. Used mostly in comedies, musicals, and light entertainment films High contrast A style of lighting emphasizing harsh shafts and dramatic streaks of lights and darks. Used in thrillers and melodramas Low Key A style of lighting that emphasizes diffused shadows and atmospheric pools of light Used in mysteries and thrillers Available Lighting The use of only that light which actually exists on location, either natural (the sun) or artificial (house lamps) When available lighting is used in interior locations, generally sensitive fast film stock must also be used Realists tend to favor this, at least in exterior scenes because it produces a documentary style look Backlighting When the lights for a shot derive from the rear of the set, thus throwing the foreground figures into semi darkness or silhouette Overexposure Too much light enters the aperture of a camera lens, bleaching out the image Useful for fantasy and nightmare scenes Formalists use light less literally and are guided by instead the symbolic implications Color Color in film didn’t become widespread until 1940’s. Tends to be a subconscious element in films
Color is often associated with adjectives Cool colors (blue, violet, green) tend to suggest tranquility, aloofness, serenity, and have a tendency to recede in images. Warm colors (red, orange, yellow) suggest aggressiveness, violence, and stimulation. Come forward in images Black and white photography is often used for symbolic purposes Problem: corny symbolism too obviously significant Dominant The area of the film image that compels the viewer’s most immediate attention, usually because of a prominent visual contrast Lenses, Filters, and Stocks Filters Piece of glass or plastic placed in front of the camera lens that distort the quality of light entering the camera and hence the movie image Formalist Standard Range Telephoto Lens/ long lens A lens that acts as a telescope, magnifying the size of objects at a great distance a side effect is its tendency to flatten perspective Wide angle lens/ short lens A lens that permits the camera to photograph a wider area than a normal lens. A side effect is its tendency to exaggerate perspective Also used for deep focus photography Rack Focusing The blurring of focal planes in sequence, forcing the viewer’s eyes to travel with those areas of an image that remain in sharp focus
Fast Stock/ fast film Film stock that’s highly sensitive to light and generally produces a grainy image Often used by documentaries who wish to shoot with only available lighting (realist) Slow Stock/ slow film Film stocks that are relatively insensitive to light and produce crisp images and a sharpness of detail. When used in interior settings, these stocks generally require considerable artificial illumination Special Effects CGI computer generated imagery The Cinematographer Storyboarding A previsualization technique in which sots are sketched in advance and in sequence, like a comic strip, thus allowing the filmmaker to outline the mise en scene and construct the editing continuity before production begins
Mise En Scène
10/04/2012
Mise En Scène “placing on stage” the arrangement of visual weights and movements within a given space. In the live theater, the space is usually defined by the proscenium arch; in movies it is defined by the frame that encloses the images. Cinematic mise en scène encompasses both the staging of the action and the way that it’s photographed. The Frame Each movie is enclosed by the frame of the screen, which defines the world of the film, separating it from the actual world of the darkened auditorium. Certain areas within the frame can suggest symbolic ideas. Center this is the norm, we expect visual dominants to be placed here, which is precisely why most objects in the center tend to be visually undramatic Realist filmmakers favor central dominance because it is the most unobtrusive kind of framing. However, even formalists use center dominance in expository shots Top this area can suggest power, authority, and aspiration, but these generalization are only true if the other figures are approximately the same size as or smaller than the dominant figure. Sometimes the placing of objects at the top of the screen do not have meaning, but this is the only logical place in the frame for them, like a head of a person in a medium shot Bottom items placed near the bottom usually suggest the opposite as top subservience, vulnerability, and powerlessness. Left and Right tend to suggest indifference because they are the areas farthest from center. Objects placed here are literally close to the darkness outside of the frame and can traditionally represent the unknown, unseen, and the fearful. In movies, people who want to remain anonymous or unnoticed stay to the sides. Aspect Ratio The ratio between the horizontal and vertical dimensions of the screen Today most movies are projected in one of 2 aspect ratios: Standard: 1.85:1 Widescreen: 2.35:1 Widescreen A movie image that as an aspect ratio of approx 5:3, though some widescreens possess horizontal dimensions that extend as wide at 2.5 times the vertical dimensions of the screen Masking A technique whereby a portion of the movie image is blocked out, thus temporarily altering the dimensions of the screen’s aspect ratio DeepFocus Shot
Mise En Scène
10/04/2012
A technique of photography that permits all distance planes to remain clearly in focus, from closeup ranges to infinity Composition and Design The human eye can detect a max of 7 to 8 major elements of a composition simultaneously, and the viewer is often guided to specific areas in sequence by the director using dominant contrast. A skeletal structure underlies most visual compositions Artists have especially favored S and X shapes, triangular designs, parallelism, and circles Subsidiary Contrast A subordinated element of the film image, complementing or contrasting with the dominant contrast Intrinsic Interest An unobtrusive area of the film image that nonetheless compels our most immediate attention because of its dramatic or contextual importance Territorial Space Territories have a spatial hierarchy: the most dominant organism is literally given more space, whereas the less dominant are corwded together. The amount of space an organism occupies is generally proportioned to the degree of control it has within a given territory. An actor can be photographed in 5 different basic positions, each conveying different psychological undertones: 1. Full front facing the camera; the most intimate 2. Quarter turn favored because it provides a high degree of intimacy but with less emotional involvement than fullfront 3. Profile looking off frame left or right; more remote 4. Threequarter turn more anonymous; useful for conveying an actor’s unfriendly or antisocial feelings because the actor is partly turning his or her back on us, rejecting our interest 5. Back to Front suggests a character’s alienation from the world, concealment, mystery Setup The positioning of the camera and lights for a specific shot Tight Framing Usually in close shots. The mise en scene is so carefully balanced and harmonized that the people photographed have little or no freedom of movement
Mise En Scène
10/04/2012
Loose Framing Usually in longer shots. The mise en scene is so spaciously distributed within the confines of the framed image that the people photographed have considerable freedom of movement Closeup A detailed view of a person or object; usually includes only actor’s head Panning Short for panorama, this is a revolving horizontal movement of the camera from left to right or vice versa Proxemic Patterns The spatial relationships among the characters within the mise en scene, and the apparent distance of the camera from the subject photographed Edward T. Hall subdivided the way people use space into 4 major Proxemic patterns: 1. intimate ranges from skin contact to 18 inches away; this is the distance of physical involvement of love, comfort, and tenderness between individuals. With strangers this would be considered intrusive and would react with suspicion and hostility Ex: close and extreme close shot range 2. personal ranges from 18 inches to 4 feet away; these distances are reserved for friends or acquaintances; preserves personal privacy without conveying exclusion Ex: medium shot range 3. social 4 to 12 feet away; reserved for business and casual social gatherings; friendly range but more formal than personal Ex: full shot 4. public 12 to 25 feet away; formal and detached; displays of emotion are considered bad form at these distances; public figures keep this distance Ex: extreme long shot range In general, the greater the distance between the camera and the subject, the more emotionally neutral we remain. Open and Closed Forms Open Form
Mise En Scène
10/04/2012
Used primarily by realist filmmakers, these techniques are likely to be unobtrusive, with an emphasis on informal compositions and apparently haphazard designs. The frame is exploited to suggest a temporary masking, a window that arbitrarily cuts off parts of the action. Closed Form A visual style that inclines towards selfconscious designs and carefully harmonized compositions. The frame is exploited to suggest a self sufficient universe that encloses all the necessary visual information, usually in an aesthetically appealing manner Aleatory techniques Techniques of filmmaking that depend on the element of chance. Images are not planned out in advance but must be composed on the spot by the camera operator. Usually used in documentary situations. Anticipatory camera/setup The placement of the camera in such a manner as to anticipate the movement of an action before it occurs. Such setups often suggest predestination. Inconography the use of a wellknown cultural symbol or complex of symbols in an artistic representation. In movies, inconography can involve a star’s persona, the preestablished conventions of a genre (like the shootout in a western) the use of archetypal characters and situations, and such stylistic features as lighting, settings, costuming, props, and so on. 15 Elements to analyze film 1. Dominant where is our eye attracted first? Why? 2. Lighting key high key? Low key? High contrast? Combo? 3. Shot and camera Proxemics what type of shot? How far away is the camera from the action? 4. Angle are welooking up or down on the subject? Neutral? 5. Color values what is the dominant color?are there contrasting foils? Is there color symbolism? 6. Lens/filter/stock how do these distort or comment on the photographed materials? 7. Subsidiary contrasts where are the main eye stops after the dominant? 8. Density how much visual info is packed in the image? Is the texture stark, moderate or highly detailed? 9. Composition how is the 2 dimensional space segmented and organized? What is the underlying design? 10. Form open or closed? 11. Framing tight or loose?
Mise En Scène
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12. Depth on how many planes is the image composed? 13. Character placement what part of the framed space do the characters occupy? 14. Staging positions which way to the characters look visavi the camera? 15. Character Proxemics how much space is there between characters?
Movement
10/04/2012
Kinetics Kinetic pertaining to motion and movement Motion can be literal and concrete or highly stylized and lyrical Lyrical a stylistic exuberance and subjectivity, emphasizing the sensuous beauty of the medium and producing an intense outpouring of emotion Convention an implied agreement between the viewer and artist to accept certain artificialities as real in a work of art. in movies, editing (or the juxtaposition of shots) is accepted as “logical” even though a viewer’s perception of reality is continuous and unfragmented. Ex: dance numbers in musicals are seldom meant to be taken literally Movements different movements have different, significant meanings Upward movement seems soaring and free because it conforms to the eye’s natural tendency to move upward over a composition Suggests joy, power, and authority those same ideas associated with the top of the frame Downward movement suggest opposite idea as upward Grief, death, insignificance, depression, weakness, etc. Left to Right physical movement in this direction seems psychologically natural, where as movement from right to left seems inexplicably tense and uncomfortable We tend to read from left to right so it feels more natural Movement toward or away from the camera has the effect of a character moving in our direction because we identify with the camera lens. A villain walking toward the camera can feel aggressive, hostile or threatening An attractive character walking toward the camera can feel friendly, inviting, sometimes seductive, confidence Movement away from the camera implies opposite meaningsdecreased intensity, remoteness, safe when villain moves away, etc. Lateral movements of a character will make them seem determined and efficient, a person of action, emphasize speed
Movement
10/04/2012
When a character moves in or out of depth of a scene, the effect is often one of slowness and tends to make the audience anticipate the conclusion of the movement The distance and angle from which movement is photographed determines much of its meaning: The longer and higher the shot, the slower the movement tends to appear If movement is filmed at a close, low angle the action seems more intense and sped up Epic A film genre characterized by bold and sweeping themes, usually in heroic proportions. The protagonist is an ideal representative of a culture—national, religious, or regional. The tone of most epics is dignified, the treatment larger than life. The western is the most popular epic genre in the US Usually depend on longer shots for their effectiveness because they are concerned with a sense of sweep and breadth Ecstasy and joy are often expressed by expansive motions Fear expressed by a variety of tentative and trembling movements Eroticism through the use of undulating movements Minimalism A style of filmmaking characterized by austerirty and restraint, in which cinematic elements are reduced to the barest minimum of information The Moving Camera Pans A revolving horizontal movement of the camera from left to right or vice versa Tend to emphasize he unity of space and the connectedness of people within that space Tilt A shot photographed by a tilted camera Can be used to keeps subjects within the frame, to emphasize spatial and psychological interrelationships, to suggest simultaneity, and to emphasize causeeffect relationships Crane shot A shot taken from a special device called a crane, which resembles a huge mechanical arm. The crane carries the camera and the cinematographer and can move in virtually any direction.
Movement
10/04/2012
Dolly shot A shot taken from a moving vehicle. Originally, tracks were laid on the set to permit a smoother movement of the camera. Enhances three dimentional space: it seems to put the spectator in the space Emphasizes psychological rather than literal revelations Zoom shots/lenses A lens of variable focal length that permits the cinematographer to change from wideangle shots to telephoto shots (and vice versa) in one continuous movement, often plunging the viewer in or out of a scene rapidly. The effect is a breathtaking sense of being plunged into a scene, or an equally jolting sense of being plucked out of it. Handheld shots A shot taken with a moving camera that is often deliberately shaky to suggest documentary footage in an uncontrolled setting. Less lyrical, Aerial shots Essentially a variation of the crane shot, though restricted to exterior locations. Usually taken from a helicopter. Swooping sense of freedom Reaction shot A cut to a shot of the characters reaction to the contents of the preceding shot Swish pan A horizontal movement of the camera at such a rapid rate that the subject photographed blurs on screen Aka flash or zip pan Point of view shot Any shot that is taken from the vantage point of a character in the film, showing what the character sees Pullback dolly
Movement
10/04/2012
Withdrawing the camera from a scene to reveal an object or character that was previously out of frame A stationary camera tends to convey a sense of stability and order, unless there is a great deal within the frame. Mechanical Distortions of Movement Present day cameras record movement at 24 frames per second. Five Basic Distortions 1. Animation a form of filmmaking characterized by photographing inanimate objects or individual drawings frame by frame, with each frame differing minutely from its predecessor. When such images are projected at the standard 24 frames per second, the result is that the objects appear to move, and hence seem “animated” 2. Fast motion shots of a subject photographed at a rate slower than 24 fps, which, when projected at the standard rate, convey motion that is jerky and slightly comical, seemingly out of control 3. Slow motion shots of a subject photographed at a faster rate than 24 fps, which when projected at the standard rate produce a dreamy, dancelike slowness of action 4. Reverse motion a series of images are photographed with the film reversed. When projected normally, the effect is to suggest backward movement—an egg “returning” back to its shell 5. Freeze frames a shot composed of a single frame that is reprinted a number of times on the filmstrip; when projected, it gives the illusion of a still photograph. Dissolving the slow fading out of one scene and the gradual fading in of its successor, with a superimposition of images, usually at the midpoint Flashback- an editing technique that suggests the interruption of the present day by a shot or series of shots representing the past
Editing
10/04/2012
Continuity In early cinema (1890’s), movies were shot in long shots in a single take. By the early 20 th century, filmmakers devised a sort of shorthand of editing, cutting to continuity: a type of editing in which the shots are arranged to preserve the fluidity of an action without showing all of it. An unobtrusive condensation of a continuous action. To keep the action logical and continuous, there must be no confusing breaks in an edited sequence of this sort: if a woman moves from right to left in one shot and her movements are from left to right in the next, the viewer might think she is going back to the previous scene instead of moving to a next scene. Causeeffect relationships must be clearly set forth. If a woman slams on her brakes, the director must show why. The continuity of actual time and space is fragmented as smoothly as possible in this type of editing. Jump cut an abrupt transition between shots, sometimes deliberate, which is disorienting in terms of continuity of time and space. To make transitions less confusing, filmmakers use establishing shots: Usually an extreme long shot or long shot offered at the beginning of the scene, providing the viewer with the context of the subsequent closer shots Ex: American Beauty dinner scene once the location is established, filmmakers can cut to closer shots. If there are many close shots, they may cut back to a reestablishing shot: a return to an initial establishing shot within a scene, acting as a reminder of the physical context of the closer shots D. W. Griffith and Classical Cutting 1908 D. W. Griffith entered filmmaking world called the “father of film” because he consolidated and expanded many of the techniques invented by his predecessors and first to go beyond gimmickry into the realm of art classical cutting Style of editing developed by Griffith in which a sequence of shots determined by a scene’s dramatic and emotional emphasis rather than by physical action alone. The sequence of shots represents the breakdown of the event into its psychological as well as logical components Used closeups to achieve an unprecedented dramatic effect they had been used but not for psychological purposes Not only did he achieve a greater sense of detail, he also had greater control over his audience’s reactions. He juxtaposed long, medium, and close shots to constantly shift his spectators’ point of view
Editing
10/04/2012
Master Shot An uninterrupted shot, usually taken from a long shot that contains an entire scene. The closer shot are photographed later, and an edited sequence, composed of a variety of shots, is constructed on the editor’s bench. Many filmmakers were urged to use this style, but many did not like it because there were often disagreements about sequence and while the studio director was given a first cutsequence of shots representing his interpretation, usually the studios had a right to a final cuthow the sequence will be released to the public. Cover shot Extra shots of a scene that are used to bridge transitions in case footage fails to edit well 180° ruledon’t cross the imaginary “axis of action” line so you don’t confuse your viewers reverse angle shot common in dialogue sequences a shot taken opposite its previous position Parallel Editing The switching of shots of one scene with another at a different location By cross cutting back and forth between the two, or multiple, Griffith conveyed the idea of continuous time Ex: Birth of a Nation Griffith cross cuts between 4 groups; magnifying the intensity Thematic Montage A type of editing in which separate shots are linked together not by their literal continuity in reality but by symbolic association Most commonly used in documentaries, in which shots are connected in accordance to the filmmaker’s thesis Ex: Intolerance by Griffith showed 4 different stories happening thousands of years apart but all had the theme of intolerance conceptually they were similar Intolerance was not very successful but very influential Flashbacks, flash forwards, and cutaways to fantasies allow filmmakers to develop ideas thematically rather than chronologically, freeing them to explore the subjective nature of time and the human mind. Ex: Slumdog Millionaire Motif
Editing
10/04/2012
Any obtrusive technique, object, or thematic idea that’s systematically repeated through a film Griffith expanded the art of editing to include a wide variety of functions: locale changes, time lapses, shot variety, emphasis of psychological and physical details, overviews, symbolic inserts, parallels and contrasts, associations, pov shifts, simultaneity, and repetition of motifs Griffith’s editing techniques were more economical shots could be bunched together and shot out of order Soviet Montage and the Formalist Tradition Soviet filmmakers in the 1920’s Montage Transitional sequences of rapidly edited images, used to suggest the lapse of time or the passage of events Often uses dissolves and multiple exposures V. I. Pudovkin Wrote the first important theoretical treatises on what he called constructive editing Most of his statements explained Griffith’s practices, but differed in opinion with many of Griffith’s practices Gave Griffith much praise though Thought Griffiths use of close up is too limited He insisted that every shot should make a new point He thought through the juxtaposition of shots, new meaning can be created. The meanings then are in the juxtapositions, not the actual shots Lev Kuleshov Pudovkin’s mentor Believed that ideas in cinema are created by linking together fragmentary details to produce a unified action These details can be totally unrelated in real life Ex: linked a shot of Moscow’s red square with a shot of the white house, closeups of 2 men climbing stairs and another closeup 2 men shaking hands—suggests the men are in the same place at the same time Believed traditional acting skills were not necessary in cinema
Editing
10/04/2012
Actors could be used as raw material, as objects juxtaposed with other objects to create the meaning of a scene The emotion is produced by associations brought about by the juxtapositions, not the actor’s performance Sergei Eisenstein Was interested in exploring general principles that could be applied to a variety of apparently different forms of creative activity Dialectical An analytical methodology, derived from Hegel and Marx, that juxtaposes pairs of opposites –a thesis and antithesis—to arrive at a synthesis of ideas Placed special emphasis on the art of editing and believed that montage was the foundation of film art Agreed with K&P that each shot of a sequence should be incomplete, contributory rather than self contained Criticized the concept of linked shots for being mechanical and inorganic Believed film should be dialiectical Shot A + Shot B = Shot C –not shot AB Liked transitions that were sharp and jolting, even violent A smooth transition, he claimed, was opportunity lost Pudovkin’s and Eisenstein’s different techniques produced sharply contrasting results E wanted film to be totally free of literal continuity and context; wanted movies to be as flexible as literature Andre’ Bazin and the Tradition of Realism Andre’ was a film critic who maintained that montage was merely one of many techniques a director could use in making movies. Believed in many cases editing could actually destroy the effectiveness of a scene Believed photography, TV, and cinema, unlike the traditional arts of literature and painting, produce images of reality automatically with a minimum of human interference. Said classical cutting subjectivizes an event because each shot represent what the filmmaker thinks is important, not necessarily what we would think. Liked the use of deep focus, as used by American filmmaker William Wyler, because it lets the viewer form their own opinion.
Editing
10/04/2012
For Bazin, the best films were those in which the artist’s personal vision is held in delicate balance with the objective nature of the medium. Neorealism An Italian film movement 194555; Strongly realistic in its techniques, neorealism emphasized documentary aspects of film art, stressing loose episodic plots, unextraordinary events and characters, natural lighting, actual location settings, nonprofessional actors, a preoccupation with poverty and social problems, and an emphasis on humanistic and democratic ordeals. Roberto Rosselini and Vittorio De Sica New Wave (nouvelle vague) A group of younge French directors who came to prominence during the late 1950’s and was eclectic in theory and practice Hitchcock’s North by Northwest: Storyboard Version Hitchcock is widely regarded as the greatest editor in history of cinema Storyboarding A previsualization technique in which shots are sketched in advance and in sequence, like a comic strip, thus allowing the filmmaker to outline the mise en scene and construct the editing continuity before production begins
Sound
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Historical Background The Jazz Singer 1927 first film with sound Synchronous Sound The agreement or correspondence between image and sound, which are recorded simultaneously, or seem so in the finished print. Synchronous sounds appear to derive from an obvious source in the visuals In the early “talkies”, the recording equipment required synchronous sound which restricted filmmaking in many ways: actors couldn’t move too far away from equipment, editing could only be very minimal (scene changes), and the major source of meaning had to be the dialogue. Blimp A soundproof camera housing that muffles the noise of a camera’s motor so sound can be clearly recorded on set Permitted the camera to move in and out of a scene silently Boom An overhead telescoping pole that carries a microphone, permitting the synchronous recording of sound without restricting the movement of the actors Despite these technical advances, formalist directors remained hostile to the use of realitic (synchronous) sound recording. Nonsynchronous Sound Sound and image that are not recorded simultaneously, or sound that is detached from its source in the film image. Music is usually nonsynchronous in a movie, providing background atmostphere Dubbing The addition of sound after the visuals have been photographed. Can be synchronous or non Foreign films are often dubbed in English for release in this country Orson Welles perfected the technique of sound montage in which the dialogue of one character overlaps with that of another, or several others (The Magnificent Ambersons, 1942) Sound Effects Cinematic sound is a constructed experience: multiple layers of sound are synthesized (mixed) in a studio rather than in reality, for most film sounds are no even present during the actual shooting Diagetic sound
Sound
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Sounds the characters can hear Aka source music Nondiagetic sound Sounds the characters cannot hear Aka scored music Ex: music in movies: if the characters are listening to a stereo it is diagetic, but if the score has no apparent source in the movie, it is nondiagetic American Beautyoriginally it seems the music is nondiagetic, but then the dad makes a comment about the dinner music Psychological effects of sound: High pitched sounds are generally strident and produce a sense of tension in the listener, especially if these types of noises are prolonged. The shrillness can be unnerving Often used in suspense sequences, particularly just before climaxes Low frequency sounds on the other hand, are heavy, full, and less tense and are often used to emphasize the dignity or solemnity of a scene. Can also suggest anxiety and mystery frequently suspense scenes begin with such sounds then gradually increase in frequency as the scene progresses Loud sounds tend to be forceful, intense and threatening Quiet sounds strike us as delicate, hesitant, and often weak. The faster the tempo of sound, the greater the tension produced to the listener Silence a stretch of silence tends to call attention to itself in a film Typically symbolizes death Offscreen sounds bring offscreen space into play the sound expands the image beyond the confines of the frame We tend to fear what we cannot see, so directors will sometimes use offscreen sound effects to strike a note of anxiety Sound can also serve a symbolic function Ex: Wild Strawberries –old man has a nightmare but it is silent except for a heartbeat: a reminder his life will end soon
Sound
10/04/2012
Music With or without lyrics, music can be more specific when juxtaposed with film images Some musicians complain that images rob music of its ambiguity Ex: After Fantasia, Ponchielli’s elegant “Dane of the Hours” conjures images of dancing hippos for some people Mickeymousing A type of film music that is purely descriptive and attempts to mimic the visual action with musical equivalents. Often used in cartoons Spoken Language A common misconception is that language in film cannot be as complex as in literature, but in some respects it is more complex. Emphasis determines meaning Ex: I will see him tomorrow has numerous meanings depending on which word is emphasized by the actor Dialects can be a rich source of meaning in movies Usually spoken by people outside the Establishment, they tend to convey a subversive ideology Subtext A term used in drama and film to signify the dramatic implications beneath the language of a play or movie. Often, the subtext concerns ideas and emotions that are totally independent of the language of a text. Some contemporary filmmakers deliberately neutralize language to emphasize subtext Voiceover A nonsynchronous spoken commentary in a movie, often used to convey a character’s inner thoughts or memories Through the use of the soundtrack, private ruminations and public speech can be combined in interesting ways, with new and often more subtle emphases.
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Realism and Formalism The Lumiere brothers considered founders of realist tradition of cinema Georges Melies founder of formalist tradition Realist films More about the content and subject and what is being shown than the form; try to preserve the illusion that their film world is unmanipulated Audience is watching like there is no camera Film makers want to hide the fact that the camera is there High premium is placed on simplicity, spontaneity, and directness View anything that takes focus away from the content of film as “suspicious” Ex: “Arrival of a train” by Lumiere bros Extreme form: documentaries Formalist Films Want you to know they are doing stuff to make the film happen Deliberately stylize and distort their material so that no one would mistake a manipulated image for the real thing They usually illicit an emotional response Subjective in terms of how the character would experience it Used as method of commenting on subject matter rather than just letting it unfold; have something to say about it Formalist are often referred to as expressionists because their selfexpression is at least as important as the subject matter itself Ex: “a trip to the moon” by Georges Milies Extreme form: avantgarde cinema
Classical Cinema a vague but convenient term used to designate the style of mainstream fiction films produced in America, roughly from the mid teens to the 1960s the classical paradigm is a movie strong in story, star, and production values, with a high level of technical achievement, and edited according to conventions of classical cutting The Shots Shots images that are recorded continuously from the time the camera starts to the time it stops. That is, an unedited strip of film. Frame the dividing line between the edges of the screen image and the enclosing darkness of the theater. Can also refer to a single photograph from the filmstrip 6 BASIC SHOT CATEGORIES 1. Medium shot a relatively close shot revealing the human figure from the knees or waist up 2. Closeup a detailed view of a person or object. A closeup of an actor usually includes only his or her head 3. Long shot A shot that includes an area within the image that roughly corresponds to the audience’s view of the area within the proscenium arch in the live theater 4. Extreme long shot A panoramic view of an exterior location, photographed from a great distance, often as far as a quartermile away 5. Full Shot a type of long shot that includes the human body in full, with the head near the top of the frame and the feet near the bottom 6. extreme close up/deep focus
a minutely detailed view of an object or person; an extreme close up of an actor generally only includes his or her eyes or mouth Establishing shots Usually an extreme long or long shot offered at the beginning of a scene, providing the viewer with the context of the subsequent closer shots Wideangle lens/short lens A lens that permits the camera to photograph a wider area than a normal lens. A side effect is its tendency to exaggerate perspective. Also used for deepfocus photography. The Angles Angle The camera’s angle of view relative to the subject being photographed. A high angle shot is photographed from above, a low angle from below the subject. The angles from which an object is photographed can often serve as an authorial commentary on the subject matter A slight angle can serve as a subtle form of emotional coloration An extreme angle can represent major meaning of an image The angle is determined by where the camera is placed, not the subject Realists tend to avoid extreme angles they mostly use eyelevel shots 56 feet off the ground (the way an observer would view a scene) Formalist directors are not always concerned with the clearest image of an object, but with the image that best captures its essential nature. Both directors know that the viewer tends to identify with the camera’s lens FIVE BASIC ANGLES IN CINEMA 1. Bird’s eye view a shot in which the camera photgraphs a scene from directly overhead most disorienting 2. Highangle shot a shot in which the subject is photographed from above
not so extreme, therefore not so disorienting 3. Eyelevel shot the placement of the camera 56 feet off the ground, corresponding to the height of an observer on the scene 4. lowangle shot a shot in which the subject is shot from below increase height and useful for suggesting verticality 5. Oblique angle/tilt shot a shot photographed by a tilted camera; when the image is projected on the screen, the subject itself seems to be tilted diagonal suggests imbalance Point of View shot (POV) Any shot that is taken from the vantage point of a character in the film, showing what the character sees Light and Dark Cinematographer aka director of photography of DP the artist or technician responsible for the lighting of a shot and the quality of the photography Take A variation of a specific shot. The final shot is often selected from a number of possible takes Genre A recognizable type of movie, characterized by certain preestablished conventions; a readymade narrative form Ex: westerns, thrillers, scifi, drama, ect. High Key
A style of lighting emphasizing bright and even illumination, with few conspicuous shadows. Used mostly in comedies, musicals, and light entertainment films High contrast A style of lighting emphasizing harsh shafts and dramatic streaks of lights and darks. Used in thrillers and melodramas Low Key A style of lighting that emphasizes diffused shadows and atmospheric pools of light Used in mysteries and thrillers Available Lighting The use of only that light which actually exists on location, either natural (the sun) or artificial (house lamps) When available lighting is used in interior locations, generally sensitive fast film stock must also be used Realists tend to favor this, at least in exterior scenes because it produces a documentary style look Backlighting When the lights for a shot derive from the rear of the set, thus throwing the foreground figures into semi darkness or silhouette Overexposure Too much light enters the aperture of a camera lens, bleaching out the image Useful for fantasy and nightmare scenes Formalists use light less literally and are guided by instead the symbolic implications Color Color in film didn’t become widespread until 1940’s. Tends to be a subconscious element in films
Color is often associated with adjectives Cool colors (blue, violet, green) tend to suggest tranquility, aloofness, serenity, and have a tendency to recede in images. Warm colors (red, orange, yellow) suggest aggressiveness, violence, and stimulation. Come forward in images Black and white photography is often used for symbolic purposes Problem: corny symbolism too obviously significant Dominant The area of the film image that compels the viewer’s most immediate attention, usually because of a prominent visual contrast Lenses, Filters, and Stocks Filters Piece of glass or plastic placed in front of the camera lens that distort the quality of light entering the camera and hence the movie image Formalist Standard Range Telephoto Lens/ long lens A lens that acts as a telescope, magnifying the size of objects at a great distance a side effect is its tendency to flatten perspective Wide angle lens/ short lens A lens that permits the camera to photograph a wider area than a normal lens. A side effect is its tendency to exaggerate perspective Also used for deep focus photography Rack Focusing The blurring of focal planes in sequence, forcing the viewer’s eyes to travel with those areas of an image that remain in sharp focus
Fast Stock/ fast film Film stock that’s highly sensitive to light and generally produces a grainy image Often used by documentaries who wish to shoot with only available lighting (realist) Slow Stock/ slow film Film stocks that are relatively insensitive to light and produce crisp images and a sharpness of detail. When used in interior settings, these stocks generally require considerable artificial illumination Special Effects CGI computer generated imagery The Cinematographer Storyboarding A previsualization technique in which sots are sketched in advance and in sequence, like a comic strip, thus allowing the filmmaker to outline the mise en scene and construct the editing continuity before production begins
Mise En Scène
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Mise En Scène “placing on stage” the arrangement of visual weights and movements within a given space. In the live theater, the space is usually defined by the proscenium arch; in movies it is defined by the frame that encloses the images. Cinematic mise en scène encompasses both the staging of the action and the way that it’s photographed. The Frame Each movie is enclosed by the frame of the screen, which defines the world of the film, separating it from the actual world of the darkened auditorium. Certain areas within the frame can suggest symbolic ideas. Center this is the norm, we expect visual dominants to be placed here, which is precisely why most objects in the center tend to be visually undramatic Realist filmmakers favor central dominance because it is the most unobtrusive kind of framing. However, even formalists use center dominance in expository shots Top this area can suggest power, authority, and aspiration, but these generalization are only true if the other figures are approximately the same size as or smaller than the dominant figure. Sometimes the placing of objects at the top of the screen do not have meaning, but this is the only logical place in the frame for them, like a head of a person in a medium shot Bottom items placed near the bottom usually suggest the opposite as top subservience, vulnerability, and powerlessness. Left and Right tend to suggest indifference because they are the areas farthest from center. Objects placed here are literally close to the darkness outside of the frame and can traditionally represent the unknown, unseen, and the fearful. In movies, people who want to remain anonymous or unnoticed stay to the sides. Aspect Ratio The ratio between the horizontal and vertical dimensions of the screen Today most movies are projected in one of 2 aspect ratios: Standard: 1.85:1 Widescreen: 2.35:1 Widescreen A movie image that as an aspect ratio of approx 5:3, though some widescreens possess horizontal dimensions that extend as wide at 2.5 times the vertical dimensions of the screen Masking A technique whereby a portion of the movie image is blocked out, thus temporarily altering the dimensions of the screen’s aspect ratio DeepFocus Shot
Mise En Scène
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A technique of photography that permits all distance planes to remain clearly in focus, from closeup ranges to infinity Composition and Design The human eye can detect a max of 7 to 8 major elements of a composition simultaneously, and the viewer is often guided to specific areas in sequence by the director using dominant contrast. A skeletal structure underlies most visual compositions Artists have especially favored S and X shapes, triangular designs, parallelism, and circles Subsidiary Contrast A subordinated element of the film image, complementing or contrasting with the dominant contrast Intrinsic Interest An unobtrusive area of the film image that nonetheless compels our most immediate attention because of its dramatic or contextual importance Territorial Space Territories have a spatial hierarchy: the most dominant organism is literally given more space, whereas the less dominant are corwded together. The amount of space an organism occupies is generally proportioned to the degree of control it has within a given territory. An actor can be photographed in 5 different basic positions, each conveying different psychological undertones: 1. Full front facing the camera; the most intimate 2. Quarter turn favored because it provides a high degree of intimacy but with less emotional involvement than fullfront 3. Profile looking off frame left or right; more remote 4. Threequarter turn more anonymous; useful for conveying an actor’s unfriendly or antisocial feelings because the actor is partly turning his or her back on us, rejecting our interest 5. Back to Front suggests a character’s alienation from the world, concealment, mystery Setup The positioning of the camera and lights for a specific shot Tight Framing Usually in close shots. The mise en scene is so carefully balanced and harmonized that the people photographed have little or no freedom of movement
Mise En Scène
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Loose Framing Usually in longer shots. The mise en scene is so spaciously distributed within the confines of the framed image that the people photographed have considerable freedom of movement Closeup A detailed view of a person or object; usually includes only actor’s head Panning Short for panorama, this is a revolving horizontal movement of the camera from left to right or vice versa Proxemic Patterns The spatial relationships among the characters within the mise en scene, and the apparent distance of the camera from the subject photographed Edward T. Hall subdivided the way people use space into 4 major Proxemic patterns: 1. intimate ranges from skin contact to 18 inches away; this is the distance of physical involvement of love, comfort, and tenderness between individuals. With strangers this would be considered intrusive and would react with suspicion and hostility Ex: close and extreme close shot range 2. personal ranges from 18 inches to 4 feet away; these distances are reserved for friends or acquaintances; preserves personal privacy without conveying exclusion Ex: medium shot range 3. social 4 to 12 feet away; reserved for business and casual social gatherings; friendly range but more formal than personal Ex: full shot 4. public 12 to 25 feet away; formal and detached; displays of emotion are considered bad form at these distances; public figures keep this distance Ex: extreme long shot range In general, the greater the distance between the camera and the subject, the more emotionally neutral we remain. Open and Closed Forms Open Form
Mise En Scène
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Used primarily by realist filmmakers, these techniques are likely to be unobtrusive, with an emphasis on informal compositions and apparently haphazard designs. The frame is exploited to suggest a temporary masking, a window that arbitrarily cuts off parts of the action. Closed Form A visual style that inclines towards selfconscious designs and carefully harmonized compositions. The frame is exploited to suggest a self sufficient universe that encloses all the necessary visual information, usually in an aesthetically appealing manner Aleatory techniques Techniques of filmmaking that depend on the element of chance. Images are not planned out in advance but must be composed on the spot by the camera operator. Usually used in documentary situations. Anticipatory camera/setup The placement of the camera in such a manner as to anticipate the movement of an action before it occurs. Such setups often suggest predestination. Inconography the use of a wellknown cultural symbol or complex of symbols in an artistic representation. In movies, inconography can involve a star’s persona, the preestablished conventions of a genre (like the shootout in a western) the use of archetypal characters and situations, and such stylistic features as lighting, settings, costuming, props, and so on. 15 Elements to analyze film 1. Dominant where is our eye attracted first? Why? 2. Lighting key high key? Low key? High contrast? Combo? 3. Shot and camera Proxemics what type of shot? How far away is the camera from the action? 4. Angle are welooking up or down on the subject? Neutral? 5. Color values what is the dominant color?are there contrasting foils? Is there color symbolism? 6. Lens/filter/stock how do these distort or comment on the photographed materials? 7. Subsidiary contrasts where are the main eye stops after the dominant? 8. Density how much visual info is packed in the image? Is the texture stark, moderate or highly detailed? 9. Composition how is the 2 dimensional space segmented and organized? What is the underlying design? 10. Form open or closed? 11. Framing tight or loose?
Mise En Scène
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12. Depth on how many planes is the image composed? 13. Character placement what part of the framed space do the characters occupy? 14. Staging positions which way to the characters look visavi the camera? 15. Character Proxemics how much space is there between characters?
Movement
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Kinetics Kinetic pertaining to motion and movement Motion can be literal and concrete or highly stylized and lyrical Lyrical a stylistic exuberance and subjectivity, emphasizing the sensuous beauty of the medium and producing an intense outpouring of emotion Convention an implied agreement between the viewer and artist to accept certain artificialities as real in a work of art. in movies, editing (or the juxtaposition of shots) is accepted as “logical” even though a viewer’s perception of reality is continuous and unfragmented. Ex: dance numbers in musicals are seldom meant to be taken literally Movements different movements have different, significant meanings Upward movement seems soaring and free because it conforms to the eye’s natural tendency to move upward over a composition Suggests joy, power, and authority those same ideas associated with the top of the frame Downward movement suggest opposite idea as upward Grief, death, insignificance, depression, weakness, etc. Left to Right physical movement in this direction seems psychologically natural, where as movement from right to left seems inexplicably tense and uncomfortable We tend to read from left to right so it feels more natural Movement toward or away from the camera has the effect of a character moving in our direction because we identify with the camera lens. A villain walking toward the camera can feel aggressive, hostile or threatening An attractive character walking toward the camera can feel friendly, inviting, sometimes seductive, confidence Movement away from the camera implies opposite meaningsdecreased intensity, remoteness, safe when villain moves away, etc. Lateral movements of a character will make them seem determined and efficient, a person of action, emphasize speed
Movement
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When a character moves in or out of depth of a scene, the effect is often one of slowness and tends to make the audience anticipate the conclusion of the movement The distance and angle from which movement is photographed determines much of its meaning: The longer and higher the shot, the slower the movement tends to appear If movement is filmed at a close, low angle the action seems more intense and sped up Epic A film genre characterized by bold and sweeping themes, usually in heroic proportions. The protagonist is an ideal representative of a culture—national, religious, or regional. The tone of most epics is dignified, the treatment larger than life. The western is the most popular epic genre in the US Usually depend on longer shots for their effectiveness because they are concerned with a sense of sweep and breadth Ecstasy and joy are often expressed by expansive motions Fear expressed by a variety of tentative and trembling movements Eroticism through the use of undulating movements Minimalism A style of filmmaking characterized by austerirty and restraint, in which cinematic elements are reduced to the barest minimum of information The Moving Camera Pans A revolving horizontal movement of the camera from left to right or vice versa Tend to emphasize he unity of space and the connectedness of people within that space Tilt A shot photographed by a tilted camera Can be used to keeps subjects within the frame, to emphasize spatial and psychological interrelationships, to suggest simultaneity, and to emphasize causeeffect relationships Crane shot A shot taken from a special device called a crane, which resembles a huge mechanical arm. The crane carries the camera and the cinematographer and can move in virtually any direction.
Movement
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Dolly shot A shot taken from a moving vehicle. Originally, tracks were laid on the set to permit a smoother movement of the camera. Enhances three dimentional space: it seems to put the spectator in the space Emphasizes psychological rather than literal revelations Zoom shots/lenses A lens of variable focal length that permits the cinematographer to change from wideangle shots to telephoto shots (and vice versa) in one continuous movement, often plunging the viewer in or out of a scene rapidly. The effect is a breathtaking sense of being plunged into a scene, or an equally jolting sense of being plucked out of it. Handheld shots A shot taken with a moving camera that is often deliberately shaky to suggest documentary footage in an uncontrolled setting. Less lyrical, Aerial shots Essentially a variation of the crane shot, though restricted to exterior locations. Usually taken from a helicopter. Swooping sense of freedom Reaction shot A cut to a shot of the characters reaction to the contents of the preceding shot Swish pan A horizontal movement of the camera at such a rapid rate that the subject photographed blurs on screen Aka flash or zip pan Point of view shot Any shot that is taken from the vantage point of a character in the film, showing what the character sees Pullback dolly
Movement
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Withdrawing the camera from a scene to reveal an object or character that was previously out of frame A stationary camera tends to convey a sense of stability and order, unless there is a great deal within the frame. Mechanical Distortions of Movement Present day cameras record movement at 24 frames per second. Five Basic Distortions 1. Animation a form of filmmaking characterized by photographing inanimate objects or individual drawings frame by frame, with each frame differing minutely from its predecessor. When such images are projected at the standard 24 frames per second, the result is that the objects appear to move, and hence seem “animated” 2. Fast motion shots of a subject photographed at a rate slower than 24 fps, which, when projected at the standard rate, convey motion that is jerky and slightly comical, seemingly out of control 3. Slow motion shots of a subject photographed at a faster rate than 24 fps, which when projected at the standard rate produce a dreamy, dancelike slowness of action 4. Reverse motion a series of images are photographed with the film reversed. When projected normally, the effect is to suggest backward movement—an egg “returning” back to its shell 5. Freeze frames a shot composed of a single frame that is reprinted a number of times on the filmstrip; when projected, it gives the illusion of a still photograph. Dissolving the slow fading out of one scene and the gradual fading in of its successor, with a superimposition of images, usually at the midpoint Flashback- an editing technique that suggests the interruption of the present day by a shot or series of shots representing the past
Editing
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Continuity In early cinema (1890’s), movies were shot in long shots in a single take. By the early 20 th century, filmmakers devised a sort of shorthand of editing, cutting to continuity: a type of editing in which the shots are arranged to preserve the fluidity of an action without showing all of it. An unobtrusive condensation of a continuous action. To keep the action logical and continuous, there must be no confusing breaks in an edited sequence of this sort: if a woman moves from right to left in one shot and her movements are from left to right in the next, the viewer might think she is going back to the previous scene instead of moving to a next scene. Causeeffect relationships must be clearly set forth. If a woman slams on her brakes, the director must show why. The continuity of actual time and space is fragmented as smoothly as possible in this type of editing. Jump cut an abrupt transition between shots, sometimes deliberate, which is disorienting in terms of continuity of time and space. To make transitions less confusing, filmmakers use establishing shots: Usually an extreme long shot or long shot offered at the beginning of the scene, providing the viewer with the context of the subsequent closer shots Ex: American Beauty dinner scene once the location is established, filmmakers can cut to closer shots. If there are many close shots, they may cut back to a reestablishing shot: a return to an initial establishing shot within a scene, acting as a reminder of the physical context of the closer shots D. W. Griffith and Classical Cutting 1908 D. W. Griffith entered filmmaking world called the “father of film” because he consolidated and expanded many of the techniques invented by his predecessors and first to go beyond gimmickry into the realm of art classical cutting Style of editing developed by Griffith in which a sequence of shots determined by a scene’s dramatic and emotional emphasis rather than by physical action alone. The sequence of shots represents the breakdown of the event into its psychological as well as logical components Used closeups to achieve an unprecedented dramatic effect they had been used but not for psychological purposes Not only did he achieve a greater sense of detail, he also had greater control over his audience’s reactions. He juxtaposed long, medium, and close shots to constantly shift his spectators’ point of view
Editing
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Master Shot An uninterrupted shot, usually taken from a long shot that contains an entire scene. The closer shot are photographed later, and an edited sequence, composed of a variety of shots, is constructed on the editor’s bench. Many filmmakers were urged to use this style, but many did not like it because there were often disagreements about sequence and while the studio director was given a first cutsequence of shots representing his interpretation, usually the studios had a right to a final cuthow the sequence will be released to the public. Cover shot Extra shots of a scene that are used to bridge transitions in case footage fails to edit well 180° ruledon’t cross the imaginary “axis of action” line so you don’t confuse your viewers reverse angle shot common in dialogue sequences a shot taken opposite its previous position Parallel Editing The switching of shots of one scene with another at a different location By cross cutting back and forth between the two, or multiple, Griffith conveyed the idea of continuous time Ex: Birth of a Nation Griffith cross cuts between 4 groups; magnifying the intensity Thematic Montage A type of editing in which separate shots are linked together not by their literal continuity in reality but by symbolic association Most commonly used in documentaries, in which shots are connected in accordance to the filmmaker’s thesis Ex: Intolerance by Griffith showed 4 different stories happening thousands of years apart but all had the theme of intolerance conceptually they were similar Intolerance was not very successful but very influential Flashbacks, flash forwards, and cutaways to fantasies allow filmmakers to develop ideas thematically rather than chronologically, freeing them to explore the subjective nature of time and the human mind. Ex: Slumdog Millionaire Motif
Editing
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Any obtrusive technique, object, or thematic idea that’s systematically repeated through a film Griffith expanded the art of editing to include a wide variety of functions: locale changes, time lapses, shot variety, emphasis of psychological and physical details, overviews, symbolic inserts, parallels and contrasts, associations, pov shifts, simultaneity, and repetition of motifs Griffith’s editing techniques were more economical shots could be bunched together and shot out of order Soviet Montage and the Formalist Tradition Soviet filmmakers in the 1920’s Montage Transitional sequences of rapidly edited images, used to suggest the lapse of time or the passage of events Often uses dissolves and multiple exposures V. I. Pudovkin Wrote the first important theoretical treatises on what he called constructive editing Most of his statements explained Griffith’s practices, but differed in opinion with many of Griffith’s practices Gave Griffith much praise though Thought Griffiths use of close up is too limited He insisted that every shot should make a new point He thought through the juxtaposition of shots, new meaning can be created. The meanings then are in the juxtapositions, not the actual shots Lev Kuleshov Pudovkin’s mentor Believed that ideas in cinema are created by linking together fragmentary details to produce a unified action These details can be totally unrelated in real life Ex: linked a shot of Moscow’s red square with a shot of the white house, closeups of 2 men climbing stairs and another closeup 2 men shaking hands—suggests the men are in the same place at the same time Believed traditional acting skills were not necessary in cinema
Editing
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Actors could be used as raw material, as objects juxtaposed with other objects to create the meaning of a scene The emotion is produced by associations brought about by the juxtapositions, not the actor’s performance Sergei Eisenstein Was interested in exploring general principles that could be applied to a variety of apparently different forms of creative activity Dialectical An analytical methodology, derived from Hegel and Marx, that juxtaposes pairs of opposites –a thesis and antithesis—to arrive at a synthesis of ideas Placed special emphasis on the art of editing and believed that montage was the foundation of film art Agreed with K&P that each shot of a sequence should be incomplete, contributory rather than self contained Criticized the concept of linked shots for being mechanical and inorganic Believed film should be dialiectical Shot A + Shot B = Shot C –not shot AB Liked transitions that were sharp and jolting, even violent A smooth transition, he claimed, was opportunity lost Pudovkin’s and Eisenstein’s different techniques produced sharply contrasting results E wanted film to be totally free of literal continuity and context; wanted movies to be as flexible as literature Andre’ Bazin and the Tradition of Realism Andre’ was a film critic who maintained that montage was merely one of many techniques a director could use in making movies. Believed in many cases editing could actually destroy the effectiveness of a scene Believed photography, TV, and cinema, unlike the traditional arts of literature and painting, produce images of reality automatically with a minimum of human interference. Said classical cutting subjectivizes an event because each shot represent what the filmmaker thinks is important, not necessarily what we would think. Liked the use of deep focus, as used by American filmmaker William Wyler, because it lets the viewer form their own opinion.
Editing
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For Bazin, the best films were those in which the artist’s personal vision is held in delicate balance with the objective nature of the medium. Neorealism An Italian film movement 194555; Strongly realistic in its techniques, neorealism emphasized documentary aspects of film art, stressing loose episodic plots, unextraordinary events and characters, natural lighting, actual location settings, nonprofessional actors, a preoccupation with poverty and social problems, and an emphasis on humanistic and democratic ordeals. Roberto Rosselini and Vittorio De Sica New Wave (nouvelle vague) A group of younge French directors who came to prominence during the late 1950’s and was eclectic in theory and practice Hitchcock’s North by Northwest: Storyboard Version Hitchcock is widely regarded as the greatest editor in history of cinema Storyboarding A previsualization technique in which shots are sketched in advance and in sequence, like a comic strip, thus allowing the filmmaker to outline the mise en scene and construct the editing continuity before production begins
Sound
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Historical Background The Jazz Singer 1927 first film with sound Synchronous Sound The agreement or correspondence between image and sound, which are recorded simultaneously, or seem so in the finished print. Synchronous sounds appear to derive from an obvious source in the visuals In the early “talkies”, the recording equipment required synchronous sound which restricted filmmaking in many ways: actors couldn’t move too far away from equipment, editing could only be very minimal (scene changes), and the major source of meaning had to be the dialogue. Blimp A soundproof camera housing that muffles the noise of a camera’s motor so sound can be clearly recorded on set Permitted the camera to move in and out of a scene silently Boom An overhead telescoping pole that carries a microphone, permitting the synchronous recording of sound without restricting the movement of the actors Despite these technical advances, formalist directors remained hostile to the use of realitic (synchronous) sound recording. Nonsynchronous Sound Sound and image that are not recorded simultaneously, or sound that is detached from its source in the film image. Music is usually nonsynchronous in a movie, providing background atmostphere Dubbing The addition of sound after the visuals have been photographed. Can be synchronous or non Foreign films are often dubbed in English for release in this country Orson Welles perfected the technique of sound montage in which the dialogue of one character overlaps with that of another, or several others (The Magnificent Ambersons, 1942) Sound Effects Cinematic sound is a constructed experience: multiple layers of sound are synthesized (mixed) in a studio rather than in reality, for most film sounds are no even present during the actual shooting Diagetic sound
Sound
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Sounds the characters can hear Aka source music Nondiagetic sound Sounds the characters cannot hear Aka scored music Ex: music in movies: if the characters are listening to a stereo it is diagetic, but if the score has no apparent source in the movie, it is nondiagetic American Beautyoriginally it seems the music is nondiagetic, but then the dad makes a comment about the dinner music Psychological effects of sound: High pitched sounds are generally strident and produce a sense of tension in the listener, especially if these types of noises are prolonged. The shrillness can be unnerving Often used in suspense sequences, particularly just before climaxes Low frequency sounds on the other hand, are heavy, full, and less tense and are often used to emphasize the dignity or solemnity of a scene. Can also suggest anxiety and mystery frequently suspense scenes begin with such sounds then gradually increase in frequency as the scene progresses Loud sounds tend to be forceful, intense and threatening Quiet sounds strike us as delicate, hesitant, and often weak. The faster the tempo of sound, the greater the tension produced to the listener Silence a stretch of silence tends to call attention to itself in a film Typically symbolizes death Offscreen sounds bring offscreen space into play the sound expands the image beyond the confines of the frame We tend to fear what we cannot see, so directors will sometimes use offscreen sound effects to strike a note of anxiety Sound can also serve a symbolic function Ex: Wild Strawberries –old man has a nightmare but it is silent except for a heartbeat: a reminder his life will end soon
Sound
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Music With or without lyrics, music can be more specific when juxtaposed with film images Some musicians complain that images rob music of its ambiguity Ex: After Fantasia, Ponchielli’s elegant “Dane of the Hours” conjures images of dancing hippos for some people Mickeymousing A type of film music that is purely descriptive and attempts to mimic the visual action with musical equivalents. Often used in cartoons Spoken Language A common misconception is that language in film cannot be as complex as in literature, but in some respects it is more complex. Emphasis determines meaning Ex: I will see him tomorrow has numerous meanings depending on which word is emphasized by the actor Dialects can be a rich source of meaning in movies Usually spoken by people outside the Establishment, they tend to convey a subversive ideology Subtext A term used in drama and film to signify the dramatic implications beneath the language of a play or movie. Often, the subtext concerns ideas and emotions that are totally independent of the language of a text. Some contemporary filmmakers deliberately neutralize language to emphasize subtext Voiceover A nonsynchronous spoken commentary in a movie, often used to convey a character’s inner thoughts or memories Through the use of the soundtrack, private ruminations and public speech can be combined in interesting ways, with new and often more subtle emphases.
