PSYA4 â PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH Psychological Research ...
PSYA4 – PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH Psychological Research
THE APPLICATION OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD IN PSYCHOLOGY 1
PSYA4 – PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 1. The major features of science, including replicability, objectivity, theory
construction, hypothesis testing, the use of empirical methods A discipline must have a definable subject matter, objectivity & replicability to be defined as a science The scientific process must involve: -
Hypothesis-testing (predictions derived by theories)
-
Theory-construction (explanation of WHY phenomena happen)
Empiricism •
A view that suggests that sensory experience is central to the development and formation of knowledge and thus central to the scientific method
•
Information gained through direct observation/ experiment rather than by reasoned argument or unfounded beliefs
Objectivity •
Scientists strive to be objective in their observations & measurements i.e. research should not depend on/ be influenced by the person that did the research.
•
High level of objectivity increases other people’s confidence in the results. They are able to say that whoever does the work, the results will be the same
•
If research not objective then they have been subjective - researcher’s opinion influenced study and the interpretation of results - findings may be distorted/biased
•
This means that another researcher doing the same thing might not find the same results: the findings therefore lack validity
To diminish unconscious bias, researchers can use: Standardised instructions Operational definitions of observed variables
Psychologists ensure objectivity through peer reviews: validating new knowledge - scrutiny of work.
Objective measurements Double blind techniques
Replicability
2
PSYA4 – PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH •
•
Replicability is the ability: o
For procedures and/or findings to be reproduced or repeated
o
To check and verify information
One way to demonstrate the validity of any observation or experiment is to repeat it. If the outcome is the same, this affirms the truth of the original results, especially if the observations have been made by a different person.
In order for replication to be possible: -
Research must be repeated under the same conditions therefore the methods used must be carefully recorded so that the same procedures may be followed
-
All details of original study must be published, including procedure, data and results
-
For research to be seen as reliable it has to have consistent results when replicated
What must the researcher include in order for their study to be replicable? -
Exactly what you aim to research & the usefulness of it
-
Detailed procedure
-
Number of ppts. their key characteristics and the sampling technique
-
Where the study will be carried out
-
Ethical considerations
-
What raw data will be collected and how they will be analysed
3
PSYA4 – PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH Control •
Scientists seek to demonstrate causal relationships to enable them to predict and control our world.
•
Experimental method is the only way to do this - we vary one factor (the IV) and observe its effects on the DV
•
For this to be a ‘fair test’ all other conditions must be kept the same i.e. controlled.
Theory construction •
One aim of science is to record facts - additional aim is to use facts to construct theories to help us understand and predict natural phenomena around us
•
A theory is a collection of general principles that explain observations and facts.
The Scientific Process Theory: general model of how events are related to one another in the real world. Theory construction ensures a nomothetic approach and method can be INDUCTIVE or DEDUCTIVE Inductive Method
Involves reasoning from the particular to the general (bottom-up)
E.g. a scientist may observe instances of a natural phenomenon and come up with a general law or theory
It is the development of general truths or theories which can be used to explain the data that has been observed
Problem: can only explain existing data & makes no predictions of what might be found
4
PSYA4 – PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH
Deductive Method
Involves reasoning from the general to the particular (top-down), starting with a theory and looking for instances that confirm this
Darwin’s theory of evolution is an example of this: he formulated a theory and set out to test his propositions by observing animals in nature. He specifically sought to collect data to prove his theory
The Hypothetico-Deductive Method or Scientific Method The Research Cycle: -
Identify a problem which can come from observations, previous research in the area or even a desire to question common sense assumptions
-
Develop a hypothesis about the problem - it needs to be predictive and testable (operationalise)
-
Devise a study to test the hypothesis
-
Analyse and evaluate the results to determine whether they support the hypothesis or not
2. Validating new knowledge and the role of peer review
Peer Review •
Psychology develops its knowledge base through conducting research and sharing the findings with other scientists
•
Peer review is an essential part of this process and scientific quality is judged by it: it is in the interests of all scientists that their work is held up for 5
PSYA4 – PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH scrutiny and that any work that is flawed or fraudulent is detected and the results ignored External Scrutiny of Research Proposals •
If research is funded, an external funding body will send the research proposal to experts to ensure the likelihood of the research achieving its aims
•
Research is only funded if it is:
•
o
Robust
o
Well designed
o
Likely to contribute to the body of knowledge
Research will also be scrutinised by an ethics committee
Publicly Available Evidence •
Once a study is completed, the researcher is expected to share the ideas and findings with colleagues: o
To encourage academic debate
o
To inspire others
•
Before research is made public, it will be assessed by members of the scientific community for quality assurance
•
Research can then be published in generalist or specialist academic journals
•
Findings must be published even if they do not support the hypotheses
Outline what is meant by the term peer review: the assessment of psychological research papers by others who are experts in the same field (peers). This is done before the research is published. Peer Review What?
-
Done before the research is published
-
Check to prevent incorrect data from entering the public domain
-
Necessary where any application for funding is concerned so it affects not just the researcher but also the university department that employs them
-
Peer review is a way of establishing the validity of scientific research
Peer review is the process by which psychological research papers, before 6
PSYA4 – PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH publication, are subjected to independent scrutiny by other psychologists working in a similar field who consider the research in terms of its validity, significance and originality
Peer Review Where?
Peer Review Who?
Peer Review How?
-
Scholarly journals publish over a million research papers each year
-
Articles are written by academics and are peer-reviewed
-
Psychological journals: the Psychologist/ The British Journal of Psychology
-
Journals can be published weekly, monthly or less frequently
-
Experts in the same field but they are not usually experts in the area they are reviewing to ensure impartiality e.g. Baddeley won’t review memory work
-
Generally unpaid for this and usually work in academic psychology
-
Generally a number of reviews for each article/application/assessment
-
Task is to report on the quality of the research and then their views are considered by a per review panel
-
Paper submitted given an initial check by the Journals Team to check that it conforms to the submission criteria before being forwarded to the Editor who decides whether it is suitable for sending out for peer review
-
If paper selected for peer review, the Editor will either send the paper to suitable reviewers or assign an Associate Editor to act on their behalf
-
Action Editor will normally invite two or three reviewers to comment on the article and make a recommendation about its suitability for publication
-
Each reviewer is normally allowed 28 days to submit his or her report
-
Reviewers will comment on: o
Appropriateness of research design & ethical issues
o
Sampling technique and any potential sources of bias
o
Operationalization and control of variables
o
Reliability, validity & interpretation of findings
o
Appropriateness of conclusions 7
THE APPLICATION OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD IN PSYCHOLOGY 1
PSYA4 – PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 1. The major features of science, including replicability, objectivity, theory
construction, hypothesis testing, the use of empirical methods A discipline must have a definable subject matter, objectivity & replicability to be defined as a science The scientific process must involve: -
Hypothesis-testing (predictions derived by theories)
-
Theory-construction (explanation of WHY phenomena happen)
Empiricism •
A view that suggests that sensory experience is central to the development and formation of knowledge and thus central to the scientific method
•
Information gained through direct observation/ experiment rather than by reasoned argument or unfounded beliefs
Objectivity •
Scientists strive to be objective in their observations & measurements i.e. research should not depend on/ be influenced by the person that did the research.
•
High level of objectivity increases other people’s confidence in the results. They are able to say that whoever does the work, the results will be the same
•
If research not objective then they have been subjective - researcher’s opinion influenced study and the interpretation of results - findings may be distorted/biased
•
This means that another researcher doing the same thing might not find the same results: the findings therefore lack validity
To diminish unconscious bias, researchers can use: Standardised instructions Operational definitions of observed variables
Psychologists ensure objectivity through peer reviews: validating new knowledge - scrutiny of work.
Objective measurements Double blind techniques
Replicability
2
PSYA4 – PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH •
•
Replicability is the ability: o
For procedures and/or findings to be reproduced or repeated
o
To check and verify information
One way to demonstrate the validity of any observation or experiment is to repeat it. If the outcome is the same, this affirms the truth of the original results, especially if the observations have been made by a different person.
In order for replication to be possible: -
Research must be repeated under the same conditions therefore the methods used must be carefully recorded so that the same procedures may be followed
-
All details of original study must be published, including procedure, data and results
-
For research to be seen as reliable it has to have consistent results when replicated
What must the researcher include in order for their study to be replicable? -
Exactly what you aim to research & the usefulness of it
-
Detailed procedure
-
Number of ppts. their key characteristics and the sampling technique
-
Where the study will be carried out
-
Ethical considerations
-
What raw data will be collected and how they will be analysed
3
PSYA4 – PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH Control •
Scientists seek to demonstrate causal relationships to enable them to predict and control our world.
•
Experimental method is the only way to do this - we vary one factor (the IV) and observe its effects on the DV
•
For this to be a ‘fair test’ all other conditions must be kept the same i.e. controlled.
Theory construction •
One aim of science is to record facts - additional aim is to use facts to construct theories to help us understand and predict natural phenomena around us
•
A theory is a collection of general principles that explain observations and facts.
The Scientific Process Theory: general model of how events are related to one another in the real world. Theory construction ensures a nomothetic approach and method can be INDUCTIVE or DEDUCTIVE Inductive Method
Involves reasoning from the particular to the general (bottom-up)
E.g. a scientist may observe instances of a natural phenomenon and come up with a general law or theory
It is the development of general truths or theories which can be used to explain the data that has been observed
Problem: can only explain existing data & makes no predictions of what might be found
4
PSYA4 – PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH
Deductive Method
Involves reasoning from the general to the particular (top-down), starting with a theory and looking for instances that confirm this
Darwin’s theory of evolution is an example of this: he formulated a theory and set out to test his propositions by observing animals in nature. He specifically sought to collect data to prove his theory
The Hypothetico-Deductive Method or Scientific Method The Research Cycle: -
Identify a problem which can come from observations, previous research in the area or even a desire to question common sense assumptions
-
Develop a hypothesis about the problem - it needs to be predictive and testable (operationalise)
-
Devise a study to test the hypothesis
-
Analyse and evaluate the results to determine whether they support the hypothesis or not
2. Validating new knowledge and the role of peer review
Peer Review •
Psychology develops its knowledge base through conducting research and sharing the findings with other scientists
•
Peer review is an essential part of this process and scientific quality is judged by it: it is in the interests of all scientists that their work is held up for 5
PSYA4 – PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH scrutiny and that any work that is flawed or fraudulent is detected and the results ignored External Scrutiny of Research Proposals •
If research is funded, an external funding body will send the research proposal to experts to ensure the likelihood of the research achieving its aims
•
Research is only funded if it is:
•
o
Robust
o
Well designed
o
Likely to contribute to the body of knowledge
Research will also be scrutinised by an ethics committee
Publicly Available Evidence •
Once a study is completed, the researcher is expected to share the ideas and findings with colleagues: o
To encourage academic debate
o
To inspire others
•
Before research is made public, it will be assessed by members of the scientific community for quality assurance
•
Research can then be published in generalist or specialist academic journals
•
Findings must be published even if they do not support the hypotheses
Outline what is meant by the term peer review: the assessment of psychological research papers by others who are experts in the same field (peers). This is done before the research is published. Peer Review What?
-
Done before the research is published
-
Check to prevent incorrect data from entering the public domain
-
Necessary where any application for funding is concerned so it affects not just the researcher but also the university department that employs them
-
Peer review is a way of establishing the validity of scientific research
Peer review is the process by which psychological research papers, before 6
PSYA4 – PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH publication, are subjected to independent scrutiny by other psychologists working in a similar field who consider the research in terms of its validity, significance and originality
Peer Review Where?
Peer Review Who?
Peer Review How?
-
Scholarly journals publish over a million research papers each year
-
Articles are written by academics and are peer-reviewed
-
Psychological journals: the Psychologist/ The British Journal of Psychology
-
Journals can be published weekly, monthly or less frequently
-
Experts in the same field but they are not usually experts in the area they are reviewing to ensure impartiality e.g. Baddeley won’t review memory work
-
Generally unpaid for this and usually work in academic psychology
-
Generally a number of reviews for each article/application/assessment
-
Task is to report on the quality of the research and then their views are considered by a per review panel
-
Paper submitted given an initial check by the Journals Team to check that it conforms to the submission criteria before being forwarded to the Editor who decides whether it is suitable for sending out for peer review
-
If paper selected for peer review, the Editor will either send the paper to suitable reviewers or assign an Associate Editor to act on their behalf
-
Action Editor will normally invite two or three reviewers to comment on the article and make a recommendation about its suitability for publication
-
Each reviewer is normally allowed 28 days to submit his or her report
-
Reviewers will comment on: o
Appropriateness of research design & ethical issues
o
Sampling technique and any potential sources of bias
o
Operationalization and control of variables
o
Reliability, validity & interpretation of findings
o
Appropriateness of conclusions 7
