Research Methods
Research Methods September 12th, 2013 - Lecture 2 Conclusion of Part 1 - Ethics Why Science? “Provides an objective set of rules for gathering, evaluating, and reporting information”. Skepticism and Empiricism Intuition and authority legitimate sources of ideas Need for skepticism Ideas must be evaluated based on careful logic and results from scientific investigations More you know about scientific method, the more skeptical you will be of research results Fundamental Characteristic of Scientific Method Empiricism– Knowledge based on systemic observations Conclusions about the nature of the world based on collection and evaluation of data that is evaluated in a systemic way. Scientific method provides many rules for collection and evaluation of data. Goals of Science 1. Description of Behaviour— careful observation 2. Prediction of Behaviour— systemic regularities in relation of two events 3. Determine the Causes of Behaviour— requires three types of evidence and CAUTION 4. Understand or Explain Behaviour— why does behaviour occur; explanation of relationships Causality • Inferences of cause and effect require: 1. Temporal precedence: causal variable should precede the effect How is this tested in an experiment? Manipulate IV; observe effect on DV 2. Covariation: when cause present, effect occurs; when cause not present, effect does not occur. - demonstrated in experiment when subjects in experimental condition show effect and those in control do not. 3. Elimination of Plausible Alternative Explanations– Nothing other than causal variable could be responsible for observed effect. No other plausible explanation. - Is there a third variable responsible (alternate explanations)?
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Explanation of Behaviour Description, prediction, causality, and explanation all closely related – Explanation may be deemed inaccurate when new causes found Ambiguity in science – Leads to new questions – Continual discarding and revision of explanations of behaviour as new evidence gathered Basic Vs. Applied Research Basic research: – Attempts to answer fundamental questions about the nature of behaviour (theoretical issues) – Issue of ecological validity Applied research: – Practical problems and potential solutions
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Basic or Applied? Scientific progress dependent on a synergy between basic and applied research
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Overview of Scientific Experimental Design Posing an appropriate research question Conceptualizing the question Operationalizing the related concepts Identifying independent, dependent, and controlled variables Developing the hypothesis
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Hypotheses and Predictions Hypothesis—tentative idea or question; based on past research and theory Prediction—specific; concerns outcome of experiment
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Choosing an Appropriate Method Experimental, quasi-experimental, or non-experimental What method is appropriate for the situation? – Experiment – Observation – Survey Summary Utility of knowledge of research methods Utility of scientific method (objectivity) Fundamental characteristics of science (skepticism and empiricism) Empiricism (knowledge based on systemic observation) Goals of Science
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– Description – Prediction – Causality – Explanation Basic Vs. Applied Science Overview of Scientific Design Choosing an Appropriate Method
“GIRL NEXT DOOR: The diminutive girl with the broad grin who dreamed of becoming a storm-chasing meteorologist has become the face of the abuse scandal. A clerk at Abu Ghraib, she was assigned to fingerprint and process prisoners” (Time Magazine, May 14, 2004)
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Pointing Fingers “Are those charged with abuse a few bad apples, or are they just like the rest of us?” (Wallace, C., Time Magazine (May 2004) ) “The top brass says the scandal at Abu Ghraib can be blamed on a few bad apples, but did the Pentagon's zealous pursuit of intelligence give a license for abuse?” (McCreary, J., Time Magazine (May 2004) ) How Might We Answer the Question? Basic or applied research? • Can you think of a way to answer the question using the other type? - Can we answer question using results of only one study? Why or why not??? Obedience Clear that exp’t an important one: provides insight into the dynamics of obedience. Yet—is it ethical?? - How do we determine this? Obedience--Considerations Principle of Beneficence: – Need to do no harm – Need to maximize potential benefits and minimize risk of potential harmful effects – Risk-benefit analysis Risks: psychological & physical harm; loss of confidentiality Benefits: increase education; acquire skill; receive treatment for illness – Satisfaction of participating – Beneficial application of results
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Informed Consent – Purpose of study – Risks and benefits of participation – Right to refuse or stop participating May be challenged by: • Lack of autonomy (can the individual make a free and informed decision?) • Coercion
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Do you think informed consent would have affected the outcome of the Milgram study? – Would behaviour alter? – Would you have ended up with the same sample of participants?
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Participants became part of elaborate stage of events
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Deception=Active misrepresentation of information – How does the Milgram study illustrate this concept?
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Deception: – Generally acceptable to withhold when information would not likely affect decision to participate – Information later provided in debriefing
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Milgram study: – Purpose of the study not accurately portrayed – Use of confederate
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Ethical Guidelines Tri-Council Policy Statement (2010)—Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans (Medical Research Council of Canada; National Sciences and Engineering Research Council; Social Science and Humanities Research Council) APA/CPA Example Tri-Council Policy objects to use of deceit – Objects to using humans as means (objects or things) – Moral imperative for respect for human dignity – Welfare and integrity of subjects paramount Guiding Principles Purpose: “to guide and evoke thoughtful actions based on principles”
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Respect for Human Dignity – Respect for Persons – Concern for Welfare – Justice Subject Centred Approach Interests and well-being of participants should be central consideration in study Advocates collaborative approach Summary Causality – Requires temporal precedence, covariation, & elimination of other plausible explanations Ethical Considerations in human research – Beneficence – Informed Consent – Deception Guiding Principles: – Human Dignity – Respect for persons – Concern for Welfare – Justice (principles are complementary and independent)
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Explanation of Behaviour Description, prediction, causality, and explanation all closely related – Explanation may be deemed inaccurate when new causes found Ambiguity in science – Leads to new questions – Continual discarding and revision of explanations of behaviour as new evidence gathered Basic Vs. Applied Research Basic research: – Attempts to answer fundamental questions about the nature of behaviour (theoretical issues) – Issue of ecological validity Applied research: – Practical problems and potential solutions
•
Basic or Applied? Scientific progress dependent on a synergy between basic and applied research
• • • • •
Overview of Scientific Experimental Design Posing an appropriate research question Conceptualizing the question Operationalizing the related concepts Identifying independent, dependent, and controlled variables Developing the hypothesis
• •
Hypotheses and Predictions Hypothesis—tentative idea or question; based on past research and theory Prediction—specific; concerns outcome of experiment
• •
• • • • •
Choosing an Appropriate Method Experimental, quasi-experimental, or non-experimental What method is appropriate for the situation? – Experiment – Observation – Survey Summary Utility of knowledge of research methods Utility of scientific method (objectivity) Fundamental characteristics of science (skepticism and empiricism) Empiricism (knowledge based on systemic observation) Goals of Science
• • •
– Description – Prediction – Causality – Explanation Basic Vs. Applied Science Overview of Scientific Design Choosing an Appropriate Method
“GIRL NEXT DOOR: The diminutive girl with the broad grin who dreamed of becoming a storm-chasing meteorologist has become the face of the abuse scandal. A clerk at Abu Ghraib, she was assigned to fingerprint and process prisoners” (Time Magazine, May 14, 2004)
• •
•
• •
•
• •
Pointing Fingers “Are those charged with abuse a few bad apples, or are they just like the rest of us?” (Wallace, C., Time Magazine (May 2004) ) “The top brass says the scandal at Abu Ghraib can be blamed on a few bad apples, but did the Pentagon's zealous pursuit of intelligence give a license for abuse?” (McCreary, J., Time Magazine (May 2004) ) How Might We Answer the Question? Basic or applied research? • Can you think of a way to answer the question using the other type? - Can we answer question using results of only one study? Why or why not??? Obedience Clear that exp’t an important one: provides insight into the dynamics of obedience. Yet—is it ethical?? - How do we determine this? Obedience--Considerations Principle of Beneficence: – Need to do no harm – Need to maximize potential benefits and minimize risk of potential harmful effects – Risk-benefit analysis Risks: psychological & physical harm; loss of confidentiality Benefits: increase education; acquire skill; receive treatment for illness – Satisfaction of participating – Beneficial application of results
•
Informed Consent – Purpose of study – Risks and benefits of participation – Right to refuse or stop participating May be challenged by: • Lack of autonomy (can the individual make a free and informed decision?) • Coercion
•
Do you think informed consent would have affected the outcome of the Milgram study? – Would behaviour alter? – Would you have ended up with the same sample of participants?
•
Participants became part of elaborate stage of events
•
Deception=Active misrepresentation of information – How does the Milgram study illustrate this concept?
•
Deception: – Generally acceptable to withhold when information would not likely affect decision to participate – Information later provided in debriefing
•
Milgram study: – Purpose of the study not accurately portrayed – Use of confederate
•
•
•
Ethical Guidelines Tri-Council Policy Statement (2010)—Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans (Medical Research Council of Canada; National Sciences and Engineering Research Council; Social Science and Humanities Research Council) APA/CPA Example Tri-Council Policy objects to use of deceit – Objects to using humans as means (objects or things) – Moral imperative for respect for human dignity – Welfare and integrity of subjects paramount Guiding Principles Purpose: “to guide and evoke thoughtful actions based on principles”
•
• •
• •
•
Respect for Human Dignity – Respect for Persons – Concern for Welfare – Justice Subject Centred Approach Interests and well-being of participants should be central consideration in study Advocates collaborative approach Summary Causality – Requires temporal precedence, covariation, & elimination of other plausible explanations Ethical Considerations in human research – Beneficence – Informed Consent – Deception Guiding Principles: – Human Dignity – Respect for persons – Concern for Welfare – Justice (principles are complementary and independent)
