Thermal imaging of Hydrologic Processes in Streams and Wetlands in ...
Thermal imaging of Hydrologic Processes in Streams and Wetlands in the Delaware Estuary Watershed, Delaware and Pennsylvania
Tom McKenna1, Jack Puleo2, and Aline Pieterse3
1Delaware
University of Delaware
Geological Survey & Dept. of Geological Sciences 2Center for Applied Coastal Research & Dept. of Civil and Envtl. Eng. 3Department of Geological Sciences & Center for Applied Coastal Research Center for Applied Coastal Research
Hydrologic Processes Water Cycle
wetland stream gw Q tidal wetland
ENVIRONMENTAL THERMOGRAPHY
Using a thermal-imaging radiometer as a diagnostic tool All materials at temperatures greater than absolute zero emit detectable electromagnetic radiation. Very hot objects (like the sun) emit radiation in the visible region. Cooler objects (like the earths surface or human body) emit radiation in the thermal band of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Reflected Solar Energy
UV Visible 0.4µm
NIR
SWIR
1.0µm
1.7µm
Emitted Environmental Energy (Thermal Infrared)
MWIR 3.0µm
LWIR 5.0µm
8.0µm
14.0µm
Key Principles • The distribution of temperature in the environment can be used to characterize hydrology because fluid flow and heat transfer are highly coupled processes.
Key Principles • The distribution of temperature in the environment can be used to characterize hydrology because fluid flow and heat transfer are highly coupled processes. •Water has a higher thermal inertia than soil, sediment, and vegetation, so it takes longer to heat up or cool down given the same environmental conditions.
Key Principles • The distribution of temperature in the environment can be used to characterize hydrology because fluid flow and heat transfer are highly coupled processes. •Water has a higher thermal inertia than soil, sediment, and vegetation, so it takes longer to heat up or cool down given the same environmental conditions. • Surface waters and soils encounter different environmental conditions than groundwater flowing deeper underground.
Key Principles even more • Ground water at depths greater than a few meters usually has a temperature close to the mean annual air temperature.
Key Principles even more • Ground water at depths greater than a few meters usually has a temperature close to the mean annual air temperature. • Heat is transferred in the environment by conduction, convection, and radiation.
Key Principles even more • Ground water at depths greater than a few meters usually has a temperature close to the mean annual air temperature. • Heat is transferred in the environment by conduction, convection, and radiation. •The radiant temperature is a function of target temperature, emissivity, background temperature, and air temperature/humidity.
Groundwater discharging to wetlands, surface water, or the land surface can result in distinct temperatures signals. Water Temperature Breakwater Harbor
30
Philadelphia
Temperature (C)
25
Delaware River
20 15
groundwater
10
Delaware Bay
5 0 Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Imaging Platforms Used for this presentation
Mill Creek Elsmere New Castle County Delaware Walking survey
Thermal Imaging Survey of Chestnut Run to determine locations of groundwater discharge. McKenna, Asreen (DNREC), Sollenberger, and Petrov; February 20, 2013.
Mill Creek, Site 7 X
Subsequent pore water samples contained contaminants of concern
X X
Thermal Imaging Survey of Chestnut Run to determine locations of groundwater discharge. McKenna, Asreen, Sollenberger, and Petrov; February 20, 2013.
Mill Creek Site 8
Subsequent pore water samples contained contaminants of concern Thermal Imaging Survey of Chestnut Run to determine locations of groundwater discharge. McKenna, Asreen, Sollenberger, and Petrov; February 20, 2013.
Mill Creek Site 10
Subsequent pore water samples contained contaminants of concern Thermal Imaging Survey of Chestnut Run to determine locations of groundwater discharge. McKenna, Asreen, Sollenberger, and Petrov; February 20, 2013.
Thermal discharge from a pipe outfall (>18 deg C in winter) Mill Creek, Site 18 from bridge looking downstream
Mill Creek, Site 18 looking upstream
White Clay Creek tributary with source in Carpenter Recreation Area, Site 8N3-2B seep New Castle County, Del
at seep Tk = 8.0 oC 3/27/2014 9:30 am
at confluence with Reach 8 Tk = 4.4 oC
White Clay Creek tributary with source in Carpenter Recreation Area, Site 8-14 New Castle County, Del
3/25/2014 ~11:05 am
White Clay Creek tributary, Reach 1, New London Road
Why is creek not frozen when others visited were partially frozen? Large man-made springs!
WALKING SURVEY I-495 ditch tidal channel, low tide
Reaches
Reach A: Christina R. to Christiana Ave. (~152m [500Fft]) Reach B: Christiana Ave. to RR tracks (~168m [550ft]) Reach C: RR tracks to Terminal Ave. (~305m [1,000ft])
Terminal Ave.
2007
Thermal Imaging Survey of I-495 tidal ditch to determine locations of groundwater discharge at Halby Chemical / Potts Property McKenna, Cargill, Keyser, Greer, and Durski; February 14, 2013
Site A2 and upstream visual
thermal
Site A2 groundwater discharge
upstream no groundwater discharge
Thermal Imaging Survey of I-495 tidal ditch to determine locations of groundwater discharge at Halby Chemical / Potts Property McKenna, Cargill, Keyser, Greer, and Durski; February 14, 2013
A2 Groundwater Discharge at Site A2 55795593
3
Thermal Imaging Survey of I-495 tidal ditch to determine locations of groundwater discharge at Halby Chemical / Potts Property McKenna, Cargill, Keyser, Greer, and Durski; February 14, 2013
11 °C
Identifying Sources of Water in Wetlands Warm seepage into this marsh indicates a ground-water source.
What visually appears to be a spring is a cold “reappearing” stream.
13οC
1οC
Freshwater Marsh Preserve, Rockland, Delaware (walking survey, winter, early morning)
Delineating Surface Water Flowpaths in a Wetland Relatively warm water is flowing in very shallow channels obscured by dense, matted vegetation. The source of this warmer water is discharge from the “re-appearing” stream at the upland fringe of the wetland.
Freshwater Marsh Preserve, Rockland, Delaware (walking survey, winter, early morning)
Temporal Thermal Imaging to Determine River Velocity or “on-line staring at the river” Thermal, NIR, and visual imagers mounted on temporary radio tower
Field of View
Center for Applied Coastal Research
Wolf River, Mississippi, May 2010 low gradient , coastal plain, sand-bed river
Temporal Thermal Imaging to Determine River Velocity
Visual image
Wolf River, Mississippi
May 26, 2010, 3:30 pm CDT
Temporal Thermal Imaging to Determine River Velocity One thermal image from a 5-minute sequence of images collected at 4 Hz.
Wolf River, Mississippi
May 26, 2010, 10 pm CDT (night).
thermal
Sequences of thermal images and image velocimetry algorithms are used to determine river velocity.
t = 0 sec
t = 5 sec
t = 10 sec
1m 24.5 ºC Visual (later in day)
26
Water is flowing from left to right (springtime; 4:30 am local time)
Velocity of surface water shown as vectors overlain on a georectified thermal image.
Tidal inundation of marshes The flow of water on salt marsh platforms is still poorly characterized.
Challenges:
very dynamic system
microtopography dense vegetation
upland marsh platform
secondary tidal channel
primary tidal channel
“Discrepancies in tidal phase and elevation in a numerical model can be accommodated by the modeling calibration process but can severely limit the explanatory power and predictive capabilities of the model.” (French, 2003)
Brockonbridge Marsh December 13, 2008 high spring tide cold morning (subfreezing) helicopter platform
Image of Marsh Platform Inundation warmer water flowing onto cold marsh surface
Delaware Bay channels are “hot” (yellow) inundated platform is “warm” (orange)
B
A
B
A
Thermal Imaging of Tidal Marsh Inundation Warmer water (orange) flowing onto colder marsh surface (purple). The extent of inundation is clear in the thermal image but is ambiguous in the visual image due to remnant water on the marsh and similarity between turbid water and mudflats.
visual
thermal
March 10, 2009 high spring tide cold morning UD Airship
Center for Applied Coastal Research
Bowers Beach
Tidal Flooding of a Salt-Marsh
Tide South Bowers, Delaware June 23 & 24, 2009 8pm-11pm Relatively warmer water flooding over colder marsh surface
25 m high
Temperature
9:45 pm
Thermal Imaging of Inundation
10:00 pm
June 24, 2009
South Bowers, Delaware
Thermal imaging from bucket lift Time series of tide flooding a salt marsh 10:15 pm
One hour sequence Relatively warmer water flooding over colder marsh surface 25 m high
10:30 pm
Tide 10:43 pm
Temperature
10:45 pm
11:10 pm
11:34 pm
South Bowers, Delaware June 23 & 24, 2009 8pm-11pm
Relatively warmer water ebbing from a colder marsh surface
Visual image taken on following morning
Cooler water from the Delaware Bay flows into a tidal channel during flood tide and back out during ebb tide (May 2008) 5:49 DST
5:34 DST
0 min 6:34 DST
60 7:34 DST
120
flood tide
15
sunrise
6:49 DST
75 7:49 DST
135
6:04 DST
6:19 DST
30
45
7:04 DST
12
high tide
visual
90 8:04 DST
150
°C
18
7:19 DST
105 8:19 DST
165 min
ebb tide
Brockonbridge Marsh Delaware Wildlands property
Center for Applied Coastal Research
View from tower
Cooler tidal water (blue) floods a warmer (yellow-green) tidal mudflat 26-minute time series of thermal images at 2 minute intervals; Tidal flow enters from a channel to the right of the images
South Bowers, Delaware; March 2013
Red is surrounding salt marsh that was not flooded.
Results of algorithm that tracks waterline during a flood tide for three different fields of view.
In Situ data collection Survey sled during active surveying. The second operator is to the left and out of the field of view.
Digital Elevation Model In Situ
Image Derived
Note: Elevation in surrounding salt marsh (dark blue) in both images is from in situ RTK survey. J. A. Puleo, A. Pieterse, and T. E. McKenna, in press, IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Applied Earth Observations and Remote Sensing
Error Analysis Absolute value of elevation difference between image-derived and measured topography
Histogram of absolute error
J. A. Puleo, A. Pieterse, and T. E. McKenna, in press, IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Applied Earth Observations and Remote Sensing
CONCLUSIONS •
Environmental thermography with a thermal-imaging radiometer can be used as a diagnostic tool when studying hydrologic processes.
•
Handheld and fixed location surveys can be done.
•
Groundwater discharge locations can be identified (subaerial and subaqeuous) provining locations where representative water samples can be taken.
•
Stream velocity can be measured.
•
Preferential flowpaths can be traced in wetlands.
•
Sources of water to wetlands can be determined.
•
Bathymetry can be mapped on intertidal flats.
Tom McKenna1, Jack Puleo2, and Aline Pieterse3
1Delaware
University of Delaware
Geological Survey & Dept. of Geological Sciences 2Center for Applied Coastal Research & Dept. of Civil and Envtl. Eng. 3Department of Geological Sciences & Center for Applied Coastal Research Center for Applied Coastal Research
Hydrologic Processes Water Cycle
wetland stream gw Q tidal wetland
ENVIRONMENTAL THERMOGRAPHY
Using a thermal-imaging radiometer as a diagnostic tool All materials at temperatures greater than absolute zero emit detectable electromagnetic radiation. Very hot objects (like the sun) emit radiation in the visible region. Cooler objects (like the earths surface or human body) emit radiation in the thermal band of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Reflected Solar Energy
UV Visible 0.4µm
NIR
SWIR
1.0µm
1.7µm
Emitted Environmental Energy (Thermal Infrared)
MWIR 3.0µm
LWIR 5.0µm
8.0µm
14.0µm
Key Principles • The distribution of temperature in the environment can be used to characterize hydrology because fluid flow and heat transfer are highly coupled processes.
Key Principles • The distribution of temperature in the environment can be used to characterize hydrology because fluid flow and heat transfer are highly coupled processes. •Water has a higher thermal inertia than soil, sediment, and vegetation, so it takes longer to heat up or cool down given the same environmental conditions.
Key Principles • The distribution of temperature in the environment can be used to characterize hydrology because fluid flow and heat transfer are highly coupled processes. •Water has a higher thermal inertia than soil, sediment, and vegetation, so it takes longer to heat up or cool down given the same environmental conditions. • Surface waters and soils encounter different environmental conditions than groundwater flowing deeper underground.
Key Principles even more • Ground water at depths greater than a few meters usually has a temperature close to the mean annual air temperature.
Key Principles even more • Ground water at depths greater than a few meters usually has a temperature close to the mean annual air temperature. • Heat is transferred in the environment by conduction, convection, and radiation.
Key Principles even more • Ground water at depths greater than a few meters usually has a temperature close to the mean annual air temperature. • Heat is transferred in the environment by conduction, convection, and radiation. •The radiant temperature is a function of target temperature, emissivity, background temperature, and air temperature/humidity.
Groundwater discharging to wetlands, surface water, or the land surface can result in distinct temperatures signals. Water Temperature Breakwater Harbor
30
Philadelphia
Temperature (C)
25
Delaware River
20 15
groundwater
10
Delaware Bay
5 0 Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Imaging Platforms Used for this presentation
Mill Creek Elsmere New Castle County Delaware Walking survey
Thermal Imaging Survey of Chestnut Run to determine locations of groundwater discharge. McKenna, Asreen (DNREC), Sollenberger, and Petrov; February 20, 2013.
Mill Creek, Site 7 X
Subsequent pore water samples contained contaminants of concern
X X
Thermal Imaging Survey of Chestnut Run to determine locations of groundwater discharge. McKenna, Asreen, Sollenberger, and Petrov; February 20, 2013.
Mill Creek Site 8
Subsequent pore water samples contained contaminants of concern Thermal Imaging Survey of Chestnut Run to determine locations of groundwater discharge. McKenna, Asreen, Sollenberger, and Petrov; February 20, 2013.
Mill Creek Site 10
Subsequent pore water samples contained contaminants of concern Thermal Imaging Survey of Chestnut Run to determine locations of groundwater discharge. McKenna, Asreen, Sollenberger, and Petrov; February 20, 2013.
Thermal discharge from a pipe outfall (>18 deg C in winter) Mill Creek, Site 18 from bridge looking downstream
Mill Creek, Site 18 looking upstream
White Clay Creek tributary with source in Carpenter Recreation Area, Site 8N3-2B seep New Castle County, Del
at seep Tk = 8.0 oC 3/27/2014 9:30 am
at confluence with Reach 8 Tk = 4.4 oC
White Clay Creek tributary with source in Carpenter Recreation Area, Site 8-14 New Castle County, Del
3/25/2014 ~11:05 am
White Clay Creek tributary, Reach 1, New London Road
Why is creek not frozen when others visited were partially frozen? Large man-made springs!
WALKING SURVEY I-495 ditch tidal channel, low tide
Reaches
Reach A: Christina R. to Christiana Ave. (~152m [500Fft]) Reach B: Christiana Ave. to RR tracks (~168m [550ft]) Reach C: RR tracks to Terminal Ave. (~305m [1,000ft])
Terminal Ave.
2007
Thermal Imaging Survey of I-495 tidal ditch to determine locations of groundwater discharge at Halby Chemical / Potts Property McKenna, Cargill, Keyser, Greer, and Durski; February 14, 2013
Site A2 and upstream visual
thermal
Site A2 groundwater discharge
upstream no groundwater discharge
Thermal Imaging Survey of I-495 tidal ditch to determine locations of groundwater discharge at Halby Chemical / Potts Property McKenna, Cargill, Keyser, Greer, and Durski; February 14, 2013
A2 Groundwater Discharge at Site A2 55795593
3
Thermal Imaging Survey of I-495 tidal ditch to determine locations of groundwater discharge at Halby Chemical / Potts Property McKenna, Cargill, Keyser, Greer, and Durski; February 14, 2013
11 °C
Identifying Sources of Water in Wetlands Warm seepage into this marsh indicates a ground-water source.
What visually appears to be a spring is a cold “reappearing” stream.
13οC
1οC
Freshwater Marsh Preserve, Rockland, Delaware (walking survey, winter, early morning)
Delineating Surface Water Flowpaths in a Wetland Relatively warm water is flowing in very shallow channels obscured by dense, matted vegetation. The source of this warmer water is discharge from the “re-appearing” stream at the upland fringe of the wetland.
Freshwater Marsh Preserve, Rockland, Delaware (walking survey, winter, early morning)
Temporal Thermal Imaging to Determine River Velocity or “on-line staring at the river” Thermal, NIR, and visual imagers mounted on temporary radio tower
Field of View
Center for Applied Coastal Research
Wolf River, Mississippi, May 2010 low gradient , coastal plain, sand-bed river
Temporal Thermal Imaging to Determine River Velocity
Visual image
Wolf River, Mississippi
May 26, 2010, 3:30 pm CDT
Temporal Thermal Imaging to Determine River Velocity One thermal image from a 5-minute sequence of images collected at 4 Hz.
Wolf River, Mississippi
May 26, 2010, 10 pm CDT (night).
thermal
Sequences of thermal images and image velocimetry algorithms are used to determine river velocity.
t = 0 sec
t = 5 sec
t = 10 sec
1m 24.5 ºC Visual (later in day)
26
Water is flowing from left to right (springtime; 4:30 am local time)
Velocity of surface water shown as vectors overlain on a georectified thermal image.
Tidal inundation of marshes The flow of water on salt marsh platforms is still poorly characterized.
Challenges:
very dynamic system
microtopography dense vegetation
upland marsh platform
secondary tidal channel
primary tidal channel
“Discrepancies in tidal phase and elevation in a numerical model can be accommodated by the modeling calibration process but can severely limit the explanatory power and predictive capabilities of the model.” (French, 2003)
Brockonbridge Marsh December 13, 2008 high spring tide cold morning (subfreezing) helicopter platform
Image of Marsh Platform Inundation warmer water flowing onto cold marsh surface
Delaware Bay channels are “hot” (yellow) inundated platform is “warm” (orange)
B
A
B
A
Thermal Imaging of Tidal Marsh Inundation Warmer water (orange) flowing onto colder marsh surface (purple). The extent of inundation is clear in the thermal image but is ambiguous in the visual image due to remnant water on the marsh and similarity between turbid water and mudflats.
visual
thermal
March 10, 2009 high spring tide cold morning UD Airship
Center for Applied Coastal Research
Bowers Beach
Tidal Flooding of a Salt-Marsh
Tide South Bowers, Delaware June 23 & 24, 2009 8pm-11pm Relatively warmer water flooding over colder marsh surface
25 m high
Temperature
9:45 pm
Thermal Imaging of Inundation
10:00 pm
June 24, 2009
South Bowers, Delaware
Thermal imaging from bucket lift Time series of tide flooding a salt marsh 10:15 pm
One hour sequence Relatively warmer water flooding over colder marsh surface 25 m high
10:30 pm
Tide 10:43 pm
Temperature
10:45 pm
11:10 pm
11:34 pm
South Bowers, Delaware June 23 & 24, 2009 8pm-11pm
Relatively warmer water ebbing from a colder marsh surface
Visual image taken on following morning
Cooler water from the Delaware Bay flows into a tidal channel during flood tide and back out during ebb tide (May 2008) 5:49 DST
5:34 DST
0 min 6:34 DST
60 7:34 DST
120
flood tide
15
sunrise
6:49 DST
75 7:49 DST
135
6:04 DST
6:19 DST
30
45
7:04 DST
12
high tide
visual
90 8:04 DST
150
°C
18
7:19 DST
105 8:19 DST
165 min
ebb tide
Brockonbridge Marsh Delaware Wildlands property
Center for Applied Coastal Research
View from tower
Cooler tidal water (blue) floods a warmer (yellow-green) tidal mudflat 26-minute time series of thermal images at 2 minute intervals; Tidal flow enters from a channel to the right of the images
South Bowers, Delaware; March 2013
Red is surrounding salt marsh that was not flooded.
Results of algorithm that tracks waterline during a flood tide for three different fields of view.
In Situ data collection Survey sled during active surveying. The second operator is to the left and out of the field of view.
Digital Elevation Model In Situ
Image Derived
Note: Elevation in surrounding salt marsh (dark blue) in both images is from in situ RTK survey. J. A. Puleo, A. Pieterse, and T. E. McKenna, in press, IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Applied Earth Observations and Remote Sensing
Error Analysis Absolute value of elevation difference between image-derived and measured topography
Histogram of absolute error
J. A. Puleo, A. Pieterse, and T. E. McKenna, in press, IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Applied Earth Observations and Remote Sensing
CONCLUSIONS •
Environmental thermography with a thermal-imaging radiometer can be used as a diagnostic tool when studying hydrologic processes.
•
Handheld and fixed location surveys can be done.
•
Groundwater discharge locations can be identified (subaerial and subaqeuous) provining locations where representative water samples can be taken.
•
Stream velocity can be measured.
•
Preferential flowpaths can be traced in wetlands.
•
Sources of water to wetlands can be determined.
•
Bathymetry can be mapped on intertidal flats.
