Energy Resources - osu.edu
Energy Resources Hydrocarbons
Energy Consumption
Daily Per-Capita Consumption of Energy Figure 13.1
13-2
Source: Data from Earl Cook, “The Flow of Energy in an Industrialized Society,” Scientific American, © 1971.
Hydrocarbons: Oil and Gas • Oil and gas (O&G): Hydrocarbons due to chemical composition of C, H, and O • Natural gas: Mostly methane (CH4) • O&G: Formed from transformation of organic matters • Heavily mined through production wells • Other forms: Oil shale and tar sands
Geology of Oil and Gas • Formation of O&G ¾ ¾ ¾ ¾ ¾ ¾
Rapid burialÆ anaerobic environmentÆ biogenic or thermogenic transformationÆ Oil window (approximately 3–6 km depth) Formation of oil and gasÆ O&G trapped over geologic time
Process of Petroleum Maturation Figure 13.3
13-4
Source: Simplified from J.Watson, Geology and Man. 1983 Allen and Unwin, Inc.
Figure 5.32 – The conversion of organic matter to kerogen, and to oil and gas is shown as a function of the depth of burial (with corresponding increases in temperature and pressure). Biogenic methane is generated by near-surface bacterial activity. The actual depths of the thermogenic generation of oil and gas vary slightly from one area to another depending on rock type, the geothermal gradient, and the nature of the organic matter.
From Craig, J.R., Vaughan, D.J., and Skinner, B.J., 2001, Resources of the Earth – Origin, Use, and Environmental Impact, 3rd Edition. Prentice-Hall, 520p.
Figure 7.4 – Oil in a waterwet sandstone. Droplets in pores between A and B have coalesced to form a stringer. When a stringer reaches the critical height it will rise, gathering velocity as it collects more droplets and increases its height. From Barnes, J.W., 1988, Ores and Minerals, Introducing Economic Geology. Open University Press, Philadelphia, 181p.
Geology of Oil & Gas Geologic conditions for O&G fields • Source rock: Fine-grained organic-rich sedimentary rocks. O&G migrating upward to the reservoir rocks • Reservoir rock: Porous and permeable rocks • Cap rock: Impermeable rock as a barrier to trap O&G in place, forming oil fields
Figure 1. Four of the many kinds of petroleum traps: a, b, and c are structural traps; d is a stratigraphic trap. Gas (white) overlies oil (black), which floats on water (gray) within the rocks. These fluids saturate reservoir rocks, and are held down by a seal of claystone (roof rock). Oil and gas fill pore spaces in the reservoir rocks. From Flint, R.F., and Skinner, B.J., 1974, Physical Geology. Wiley and Sons, New York, 497p.
Distribution of Oil and Gas • Almost exclusively from sedimentary rocks, younger than 500 MY • ~ 85% of the total production in less than 5% of production fields • ~ 65% of the total production from about 1% of the giant fields • Most giant O&G fields near recently active plate boundaries
Distribution of Oil and Gas
World Oil and Gas Reserves Figure 13.5
13-5
Source: Averages of Estimates in Oil and Gas Journal and World Oil, as summarized in International Energy Annual 1999, U.S. Energy Information Administration.
Levorsen, 1967, Geology of Petroleum, 2nd Edition. Freeman. And Hunt, J.M., 1979, Petroleum Geochemistry and Geology. Freeman, San Francisco, 617p.
Figure 3-6. Today, a modern refinery distills thousands of barrels of oil a day through continuously operating distillation towers that are based on the same principle as Silliman’s distillation flasks, in which the distillate from the first flask is condensed in the second flask and redistilled to produce a distillate for the third flask. Instead of flasks, there are condensation plates in a tower, as shown in the figure. The vapor distilled from one of the chambers rises to the chamber above and passes through the condensed liquid of the overlying chamber, as shown in the inset. Each overlying chamber in the tower condenses successively lighter and smaller molecules, until only the light gasoline escapes from the top. At the bottom of the tower, the molecules that are so large and heavy that they cannot penetrate through the first plate as gases end up in the residuum. Refining towers may have different internal designs for condensing the vapors, but the efficiency of all of them is measured in terms of the number of plates, each bubble plate being the equivalent of the original distillation flask.
Hunt, J.M., 1979, Petroleum Geochemistry and Geology. Freeman, San Francisco, 617p.
The refining tower in the figure is run continuously by taking products out at various levels in the tower while continuously introducing fresh crude oil. The boiling ranges for the various crude oil fractions shown are for a typical Gulf Coast refinery. Refineries in other areas will show some variation in products and boiling ranges.
One barrel of crude oil when refined typically yields the products listed above, in gallons. A 42 U.S. gallon bafrrel of crude oil yields slightly more than 44 gallons of petroleum products. The “process gain” is due to reduction in the density of the crude oil during the refining process. The result is an increase in volume. More information on this subject can be found in the following EIA publications: Monthly Energy Review, Annual Energy Review, Petroleum Supply Monthly, and Petroleum Supply Annual.
Energy Information Administration, Energy Information Sheets.
From Craig, J.R., Vaughan, D.J., and Skinner, B.J., 2001, Resources of the Earth – Origin, Use, and Environmental Impact, 3rd Edition. Prentice-Hall, 520p.
Population Reference Bureau, Inc. 1875 Connecticut Ave., NW, Suite 520, Washington, D.C. 20009-5728 (data from May, 1995).
Table 7-4. Ten largest oil and gas fields of the world in relation to ten largest fields in major MDCs (more developed countries). Fields are ranked in order of declining size with gas reserves converted to oil equivalents. Numbers show their rank with respect to all fields in the world. Reserves shown here are original and have been depleted by production (from Carmalt and St. John, 1986, with permission; Bbbl = billions of barrels. Tcf = trillions of cubic feet). From Kesler, S.E., 1994, Mineral Resources, Economics and the Environment. Macmillan College Publishing Co., 391p.
Figure 7-20. Distribution and size (Bbbl of oil and oil equivalent) of oil and gas fields in the Persion/Arabian Gulf, showing location of the oil spill created during the Gulf War of 1991. Heavy lines connecting oil and gas fields are pipelines (modified from International Petroleum Encyclopedia, copyright PennWell Publishing Company, 1990). From Kesler, S.E., 1994, Mineral
Resources, Economics and the Environment. Macmillan College Publishing Co., 391p.
World Population of Oil Figure 13.7
13-7
Source: Projections from M. King Hubbert, “The Energy Resources of the Earth,” Scientific American, Sept. 1971, p. 69.
Figure 5.47 – World oil production as a function of time. The original estimates projected unrestricted production along curve A, but the reductions in usage and the restricted production since 1979 now suggest that the curve will be more like B (from L.F. Ivanhoe, Oil and Gas Journal, December 24, 1984. Used with permission). From Craig, J.R., Vaughan, D.J., and Skinner, B.J., 2001, Resources of the Earth – Origin, Use, and Environmental Impact, 3rd Edition. Prentice-Hall, 520p.
[from The Twenty First Century, The World's Endowment of Conventional Oil and its Depletion, by Dr. Colin Campbell, 1996]
Natural Gas • Larger global reserve, lasting 100 years at current rate of consumption • The most reserves in Russia and Middle East • Cleaner fuel than oil and coal • Methane hydrate: May be future alternative energy source
Irregular Chunks of Gas Hydrate Figure 13.9
13-9
Source: Photograph courtesy U.S. Geological Survey.
Existence of Carbon in Gas Hydrates Figure 13.10
13-10
Source: Data from U.S. Geological Survey.
Table 18.1 – Names and formulas of the first eight members of the saturated hydrocarbon series with their structural formulas.
Craig, J.R., Vaughan, D.J., and Skinner, B.J., 2001, Resources of the Earth – Origin, Use, and Environmental Impact, 3rd Edition. Prentice-Hall, 520p.
World Coal Reserves Figure 13.15
13-18
Source: Data from International Energy Annual 1999, U.S. Energy Information Administration, Department of Energy.
Projected World Coal Production Figure 13.16
13-19
Source: Data from M. King Hubbert, “The Energy Resources of the Earth,” Scientific American, Sept. 1971, p. 69. Actual production data to 1995 from Annual Energy Review 1995, U.S. Energy Information Administration.
Distribution of U.S. Coal Fields Figure 13.17
13-20
Source: U.S. Geological Survey.
Surface and Underground Mining Parallels Figure 13.18
13-21
Source: Data from Annual Energy Review 1999, U.S. Energy Information Administration, Department of Energy.
LURGI PROCESS: is one of two methods of coal gasification that are available on a commercial scale. It is a pressurized process in which sized coal descending into the gasifier is first dried and then carbonized by reaction with oxygen and steam. The remaining carbon is burned in the gasifier’s bottom layer, to provide heat for the reactions proceeding above. From Perry, J., 1980, The gasification of coal. In Readings from Scientific American, Energy and Environment with Commentaries by Raymond Siever. Freeman, 231p.
Coal-Bed Methane
Heavy Oil 15 % of the World’s Remaining Petroleum
Oil Shale Venezuelan Heavy Crude Athabasca Tar Sands
British Thermal Units (BTUs) • To make meaningful comparisons of different energy sources, you must convert physical units of measure (such as weight or volume) into a common unit of measurement based on the energy content of each fuel. One practical way to compare different fuels is to convert them into British thermal units (Btu). The Btu is a precise measure of energy--the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 pound of water 1 degree Fahrenheit.
The BTU Value of Fossil Fuels • In 2002, a ton of coal used to generate electricity cost about 20 percent more than a barrel of oil and about seven times as much as a thousand cubic feet of natural gas. However the thousand cubic feet of gas contained about 1 million Btu and the barrel of oil contained about 6 million Btu, while the ton of coal contained about 20 million Btu, over three times as much energy as the oil and 20 times as much as the gas. On a Btu basis, coal was cheaper. • Is this the case today?
Approximate Btu Values of Selected Energy Sources • 1 Gallon of Gasoline = 125,000 Btu 1 Gallon of Heating Oil = 139,000 Btu 1 Gallon of Propane = 91,000 Btu • 1 Pound of Coal = 10,000 Btu • 1 Kilowatt-hour of Electricity = 3,412 Btu • 1 Cubic Foot of Natural Gas = 1,021 Btu
How Many BTUs • One Btu is approximately equal to the energy released in the burning of a wood match • The average single-family household consumed 92 million Btu of energy in 2001 • Billions, trillions, and quadrillions of Btu are used to measure quantities of energy larger than those consumed by typical households • (1 quadrillion is a 1 and 15 zeros) 1,000,000,000,000,000,
How Many BTUs •
1 million Btu equals about 8 gallons of motor gasoline.
•
One billion Btu equals all the electricity that 300 households consume in one month.
•
One trillion Btu is equal to 500 100-ton railroad cars of coal intended for electric power plants.
•
One quadrillion Btu is equal to 172 million barrels of crude oil.
•
In 2003, the Nation used – – – – –
98 quadrillion Btu of energy: 39 quadrillion Btu of petroleum, 23 quadrillion Btu of natural gas, 23 quadrillion Btu of coal, 8 quadrillion Btu of nuclear energy 6 quadrillion Btu of renewable energy.
Where will we get our BTUs after the fossil fuels are gone?
Proved oil reserves at end 2004
Distribution of proved (oil) reserves 1984,1994, 2004
Oil reserves-to-production (R/P) ratios
Proved natural gas reserves at end 2004
Distribution of proved (natural gas) reserves 1984,1994, 2004
Natural gas reserves-toproduction (R/P) ratios
Proved coal reserves at end 2004
Energy Consumption
Daily Per-Capita Consumption of Energy Figure 13.1
13-2
Source: Data from Earl Cook, “The Flow of Energy in an Industrialized Society,” Scientific American, © 1971.
Hydrocarbons: Oil and Gas • Oil and gas (O&G): Hydrocarbons due to chemical composition of C, H, and O • Natural gas: Mostly methane (CH4) • O&G: Formed from transformation of organic matters • Heavily mined through production wells • Other forms: Oil shale and tar sands
Geology of Oil and Gas • Formation of O&G ¾ ¾ ¾ ¾ ¾ ¾
Rapid burialÆ anaerobic environmentÆ biogenic or thermogenic transformationÆ Oil window (approximately 3–6 km depth) Formation of oil and gasÆ O&G trapped over geologic time
Process of Petroleum Maturation Figure 13.3
13-4
Source: Simplified from J.Watson, Geology and Man. 1983 Allen and Unwin, Inc.
Figure 5.32 – The conversion of organic matter to kerogen, and to oil and gas is shown as a function of the depth of burial (with corresponding increases in temperature and pressure). Biogenic methane is generated by near-surface bacterial activity. The actual depths of the thermogenic generation of oil and gas vary slightly from one area to another depending on rock type, the geothermal gradient, and the nature of the organic matter.
From Craig, J.R., Vaughan, D.J., and Skinner, B.J., 2001, Resources of the Earth – Origin, Use, and Environmental Impact, 3rd Edition. Prentice-Hall, 520p.
Figure 7.4 – Oil in a waterwet sandstone. Droplets in pores between A and B have coalesced to form a stringer. When a stringer reaches the critical height it will rise, gathering velocity as it collects more droplets and increases its height. From Barnes, J.W., 1988, Ores and Minerals, Introducing Economic Geology. Open University Press, Philadelphia, 181p.
Geology of Oil & Gas Geologic conditions for O&G fields • Source rock: Fine-grained organic-rich sedimentary rocks. O&G migrating upward to the reservoir rocks • Reservoir rock: Porous and permeable rocks • Cap rock: Impermeable rock as a barrier to trap O&G in place, forming oil fields
Figure 1. Four of the many kinds of petroleum traps: a, b, and c are structural traps; d is a stratigraphic trap. Gas (white) overlies oil (black), which floats on water (gray) within the rocks. These fluids saturate reservoir rocks, and are held down by a seal of claystone (roof rock). Oil and gas fill pore spaces in the reservoir rocks. From Flint, R.F., and Skinner, B.J., 1974, Physical Geology. Wiley and Sons, New York, 497p.
Distribution of Oil and Gas • Almost exclusively from sedimentary rocks, younger than 500 MY • ~ 85% of the total production in less than 5% of production fields • ~ 65% of the total production from about 1% of the giant fields • Most giant O&G fields near recently active plate boundaries
Distribution of Oil and Gas
World Oil and Gas Reserves Figure 13.5
13-5
Source: Averages of Estimates in Oil and Gas Journal and World Oil, as summarized in International Energy Annual 1999, U.S. Energy Information Administration.
Levorsen, 1967, Geology of Petroleum, 2nd Edition. Freeman. And Hunt, J.M., 1979, Petroleum Geochemistry and Geology. Freeman, San Francisco, 617p.
Figure 3-6. Today, a modern refinery distills thousands of barrels of oil a day through continuously operating distillation towers that are based on the same principle as Silliman’s distillation flasks, in which the distillate from the first flask is condensed in the second flask and redistilled to produce a distillate for the third flask. Instead of flasks, there are condensation plates in a tower, as shown in the figure. The vapor distilled from one of the chambers rises to the chamber above and passes through the condensed liquid of the overlying chamber, as shown in the inset. Each overlying chamber in the tower condenses successively lighter and smaller molecules, until only the light gasoline escapes from the top. At the bottom of the tower, the molecules that are so large and heavy that they cannot penetrate through the first plate as gases end up in the residuum. Refining towers may have different internal designs for condensing the vapors, but the efficiency of all of them is measured in terms of the number of plates, each bubble plate being the equivalent of the original distillation flask.
Hunt, J.M., 1979, Petroleum Geochemistry and Geology. Freeman, San Francisco, 617p.
The refining tower in the figure is run continuously by taking products out at various levels in the tower while continuously introducing fresh crude oil. The boiling ranges for the various crude oil fractions shown are for a typical Gulf Coast refinery. Refineries in other areas will show some variation in products and boiling ranges.
One barrel of crude oil when refined typically yields the products listed above, in gallons. A 42 U.S. gallon bafrrel of crude oil yields slightly more than 44 gallons of petroleum products. The “process gain” is due to reduction in the density of the crude oil during the refining process. The result is an increase in volume. More information on this subject can be found in the following EIA publications: Monthly Energy Review, Annual Energy Review, Petroleum Supply Monthly, and Petroleum Supply Annual.
Energy Information Administration, Energy Information Sheets.
From Craig, J.R., Vaughan, D.J., and Skinner, B.J., 2001, Resources of the Earth – Origin, Use, and Environmental Impact, 3rd Edition. Prentice-Hall, 520p.
Population Reference Bureau, Inc. 1875 Connecticut Ave., NW, Suite 520, Washington, D.C. 20009-5728 (data from May, 1995).
Table 7-4. Ten largest oil and gas fields of the world in relation to ten largest fields in major MDCs (more developed countries). Fields are ranked in order of declining size with gas reserves converted to oil equivalents. Numbers show their rank with respect to all fields in the world. Reserves shown here are original and have been depleted by production (from Carmalt and St. John, 1986, with permission; Bbbl = billions of barrels. Tcf = trillions of cubic feet). From Kesler, S.E., 1994, Mineral Resources, Economics and the Environment. Macmillan College Publishing Co., 391p.
Figure 7-20. Distribution and size (Bbbl of oil and oil equivalent) of oil and gas fields in the Persion/Arabian Gulf, showing location of the oil spill created during the Gulf War of 1991. Heavy lines connecting oil and gas fields are pipelines (modified from International Petroleum Encyclopedia, copyright PennWell Publishing Company, 1990). From Kesler, S.E., 1994, Mineral
Resources, Economics and the Environment. Macmillan College Publishing Co., 391p.
World Population of Oil Figure 13.7
13-7
Source: Projections from M. King Hubbert, “The Energy Resources of the Earth,” Scientific American, Sept. 1971, p. 69.
Figure 5.47 – World oil production as a function of time. The original estimates projected unrestricted production along curve A, but the reductions in usage and the restricted production since 1979 now suggest that the curve will be more like B (from L.F. Ivanhoe, Oil and Gas Journal, December 24, 1984. Used with permission). From Craig, J.R., Vaughan, D.J., and Skinner, B.J., 2001, Resources of the Earth – Origin, Use, and Environmental Impact, 3rd Edition. Prentice-Hall, 520p.
[from The Twenty First Century, The World's Endowment of Conventional Oil and its Depletion, by Dr. Colin Campbell, 1996]
Natural Gas • Larger global reserve, lasting 100 years at current rate of consumption • The most reserves in Russia and Middle East • Cleaner fuel than oil and coal • Methane hydrate: May be future alternative energy source
Irregular Chunks of Gas Hydrate Figure 13.9
13-9
Source: Photograph courtesy U.S. Geological Survey.
Existence of Carbon in Gas Hydrates Figure 13.10
13-10
Source: Data from U.S. Geological Survey.
Table 18.1 – Names and formulas of the first eight members of the saturated hydrocarbon series with their structural formulas.
Craig, J.R., Vaughan, D.J., and Skinner, B.J., 2001, Resources of the Earth – Origin, Use, and Environmental Impact, 3rd Edition. Prentice-Hall, 520p.
World Coal Reserves Figure 13.15
13-18
Source: Data from International Energy Annual 1999, U.S. Energy Information Administration, Department of Energy.
Projected World Coal Production Figure 13.16
13-19
Source: Data from M. King Hubbert, “The Energy Resources of the Earth,” Scientific American, Sept. 1971, p. 69. Actual production data to 1995 from Annual Energy Review 1995, U.S. Energy Information Administration.
Distribution of U.S. Coal Fields Figure 13.17
13-20
Source: U.S. Geological Survey.
Surface and Underground Mining Parallels Figure 13.18
13-21
Source: Data from Annual Energy Review 1999, U.S. Energy Information Administration, Department of Energy.
LURGI PROCESS: is one of two methods of coal gasification that are available on a commercial scale. It is a pressurized process in which sized coal descending into the gasifier is first dried and then carbonized by reaction with oxygen and steam. The remaining carbon is burned in the gasifier’s bottom layer, to provide heat for the reactions proceeding above. From Perry, J., 1980, The gasification of coal. In Readings from Scientific American, Energy and Environment with Commentaries by Raymond Siever. Freeman, 231p.
Coal-Bed Methane
Heavy Oil 15 % of the World’s Remaining Petroleum
Oil Shale Venezuelan Heavy Crude Athabasca Tar Sands
British Thermal Units (BTUs) • To make meaningful comparisons of different energy sources, you must convert physical units of measure (such as weight or volume) into a common unit of measurement based on the energy content of each fuel. One practical way to compare different fuels is to convert them into British thermal units (Btu). The Btu is a precise measure of energy--the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 pound of water 1 degree Fahrenheit.
The BTU Value of Fossil Fuels • In 2002, a ton of coal used to generate electricity cost about 20 percent more than a barrel of oil and about seven times as much as a thousand cubic feet of natural gas. However the thousand cubic feet of gas contained about 1 million Btu and the barrel of oil contained about 6 million Btu, while the ton of coal contained about 20 million Btu, over three times as much energy as the oil and 20 times as much as the gas. On a Btu basis, coal was cheaper. • Is this the case today?
Approximate Btu Values of Selected Energy Sources • 1 Gallon of Gasoline = 125,000 Btu 1 Gallon of Heating Oil = 139,000 Btu 1 Gallon of Propane = 91,000 Btu • 1 Pound of Coal = 10,000 Btu • 1 Kilowatt-hour of Electricity = 3,412 Btu • 1 Cubic Foot of Natural Gas = 1,021 Btu
How Many BTUs • One Btu is approximately equal to the energy released in the burning of a wood match • The average single-family household consumed 92 million Btu of energy in 2001 • Billions, trillions, and quadrillions of Btu are used to measure quantities of energy larger than those consumed by typical households • (1 quadrillion is a 1 and 15 zeros) 1,000,000,000,000,000,
How Many BTUs •
1 million Btu equals about 8 gallons of motor gasoline.
•
One billion Btu equals all the electricity that 300 households consume in one month.
•
One trillion Btu is equal to 500 100-ton railroad cars of coal intended for electric power plants.
•
One quadrillion Btu is equal to 172 million barrels of crude oil.
•
In 2003, the Nation used – – – – –
98 quadrillion Btu of energy: 39 quadrillion Btu of petroleum, 23 quadrillion Btu of natural gas, 23 quadrillion Btu of coal, 8 quadrillion Btu of nuclear energy 6 quadrillion Btu of renewable energy.
Where will we get our BTUs after the fossil fuels are gone?
Proved oil reserves at end 2004
Distribution of proved (oil) reserves 1984,1994, 2004
Oil reserves-to-production (R/P) ratios
Proved natural gas reserves at end 2004
Distribution of proved (natural gas) reserves 1984,1994, 2004
Natural gas reserves-toproduction (R/P) ratios
Proved coal reserves at end 2004
