Week 7: Interpersonal Relations
Week 7: Interpersonal Relations -
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On her return trip from the local watering well, a married woman is asked for a cup of water by a male resident of the village. Her husband, resting on the porch of their dwelling, observes her wife giving the man a cup of water. Subsequently, they approach the husband and the three of them enjoy a lively and friendly conversation into the late evening hours. Eventually the husband puts out the lamp, and the guest has sexual intercourse with the wife. The next morning the husband leaves the house early in order to catch fish for breakfast. Upon his return he finds his wife having sex again with the guest. The husband becomes violently enraged and mortally stabs the guest. At what point in this story do you expect the husband to be jealous?
Pawne Indian Tribe -19th Century -
Husband would bewitch any man who dared to request a cup of water
Ammassalik Eskimo -
Offering his wife to a guest by means of a culturally sanctioned game of “putting out the lamp” Incredibly jealous, if wife copulated with a man outside of the lamp agreement
Toda of Southern India -
Polyandrous Husband would not be upset at all, if the man were at his wife’s mokhthodvaiol This custom allows husbands or wives to take lovers, after consent from the spouse
1
Attractiveness Physical Attractiveness - Is physical attractiveness universal or culturally variable?
Change of Attractiveness Standards
2
Universals of Physical Attractiveness -
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Some aspects of physical attractiveness have been found to be universal: Clear Complexion o People are attracted to healthy mates o Skin signals health more directly than any other visible aspect o The cosmetics industry provides people with ways to make their complexion look clearer o People have strong aversive reactions to skin conditions Bilateral Symmetry o Another market of health is bilateral symmetry o When an organism develops under ideal conditions, its right and left sides will be symmetrical o Genetic mutations, pathogens, or stressors in the womb can lead to asymmetrical development o On average, asymmetrical faces are viewed as less attractive Average Features o Faces with averagely proportioned features are more attractive than faces that deviate from average o Average features are less likely to contain genetic abnormalities and are more symmetrical o We can process any kind of stimulus that is closer to a prototype easier than one that is further from a prototype Easy processing is associated with a pleasant feeling that gets interpreted as attractive o Which male and female is most attractive?
Researchers found that, when averaging Japanese faces with Australian faces together (creating Eurasian faces), these Eurasian faces were seen as more attractive than their component faces
3
Cultural Variability of Physical Attractiveness -
Body Weight o It is noteworthy that “average is attractive” does not apply to aspects beyond facial features This is seen with people’s weight, height, muscles, boobs, and hips For such aspects, it’s bodies that depart from average that are seen as more attractive o The kinds of body weights that are perceived to be most attractive vary considerably across cultures
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In 1951, anthropologists concluded that heavier women were universally found to be more attractive o E.g., in Western Africa, the term “fat” is often viewed as complimentary, indicating strength and beauty In many ways, in the West, women who are usually thin fit the ideal body weight o These ideals for thinner women have been more prevalent during the past few decades, while actual average body weights have increased
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4
Value of Attractiveness -
Much research, largely conducted with Westerners finds that physically attractive people receive many other kinds of benefits – Tyranny of the Beautiful Physically attractive Canadian election candidates received 3x as many votes as unattractive ones More attractive MBAs earned more money than less attractive MBAs Attractive defendants in misdemeanor cases are assigned lighter sentences than less attractive ones
Anderson, Adams, and Plaut (2008) - This study investigated the role of physical attractiveness to life outcomes in the US and in Ghana - Participants indicated how satisfied they were with various life outcomes (e.g., their career, friendships, abilities, etc.) - The researchers took photo of participants and each photo was rated for physical attractiveness - Physical attractiveness ratings were used to predict participants’ life outcomes and relationship satisfaction - Researchers found that: o Physically attractive Americans were more satisfied with their lives – positive correlations between satisfaction and attractiveness o Physically attractive Ghanaians were not more satisfied with their lives – negative correlations between satisfaction and attractiveness o The “Tyranny of the Beautiful” may be largely restricted to independent cultural contexts
Relational Mobility -
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Why would attractiveness not be important or valuable/beneficial in some cultures? One key cultural distinction, relational mobility, has implications for the basis of relationships o This affects how we form and view relationships o Relational mobility can be either high or low, and parallels approximately with independence and interdependence In independent cultures, people typically have much freedom in deciding with who they will have relationships o The social environment presents many opportunities for people to create new social ties o They have more flexibility in deciding whether or not to associate with someone not in their in-group o This is referred to as high relational mobility In interdependent cultures, people typically have less freedom in deciding who they have relationships with o The social environment does not provide very many opportunities to create new relationships o Significant relationships come from various in-groups, and such in-groups are not chosen –they exist by default o This is referred to as low relational mobility
5
Mechanisms of Attraction - How do people become drawn to each other? - A couple of mechanisms: o Mere exposure effect –a culturally universal mechanisms whereby the more we are exposed to a stimulus, the more we are attracted to it o Similarity-attraction effect –a non-universal (culturally variable) mechanism whereby people are attracted to others if they share many similarities Not universal –evidence of cultural variability (particularly strong in cultures with high relational mobility) Benefits of Attractiveness - In cultures with high relational mobility o Lots of opportunities for people to seek new interactions o Thus beneficial to attract potential new relationship partners - In cultures with low relational mobility o Much more stable relationship networks o Characteristics that attract people are relatively less useful Friends and Enemies - What do you think about this poem from Ghana? Beware of friends. Some are snakes under grass; Some are lions in sheep’s clothing; Some are jealousies behind their facades of praises; Some are just no good; Beware of friends. - How might one explain this view of “enemies are among friends” idea with relational mobility? - Ghanaians (in a culture with low relational mobility) report having fewer friends than Americans and feel that having many friends is foolish - Westerners say they don’t have enemies because they avoid people they don’t like - Ghanaians view “enemyships” as a natural state of life
6
Love -
My friend, I love you as one ought to love, to excess, in madness, ecstasy, and despair –Julie De Lespinasse
Is Passion Universal? –Shaver, Wu, and Schwartz (1991) - Interviewed young people in North America, Italy, and China about emotional experience - Participants in different cultures agreed on many emotional states except love o North Americans and Italians – Love Happiness o Chinese – Love sadness Romantic Love - Romantic love is an evolutionary adaptation to ensure that children had adequate resources and protection - Romantic love is universal –however, the idea of marriages being based on romantic love is not universal o Arranged marriages have been common in many cultures Marriage Systems - Arranged marriages are more common in cultures with extended family systems o Some have argued that social pressures from an extended family system keep a relationship together - Love marriages are more likely in cultures with nuclear family structures o In the absence of this pressure, love serves as the glue that maintains a relationship - Arranged marriages may be puzzling to Westerners because this goes against many Western assumptions about love and marriage –however, arranged marriages are often quite successful - Studies find that arranged marriages are at least as happy as love marriages (except for women in China and Japan)
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Most arranged marriages end up becoming loving relationships, even if they start out without love
7
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On her return trip from the local watering well, a married woman is asked for a cup of water by a male resident of the village. Her husband, resting on the porch of their dwelling, observes her wife giving the man a cup of water. Subsequently, they approach the husband and the three of them enjoy a lively and friendly conversation into the late evening hours. Eventually the husband puts out the lamp, and the guest has sexual intercourse with the wife. The next morning the husband leaves the house early in order to catch fish for breakfast. Upon his return he finds his wife having sex again with the guest. The husband becomes violently enraged and mortally stabs the guest. At what point in this story do you expect the husband to be jealous?
Pawne Indian Tribe -19th Century -
Husband would bewitch any man who dared to request a cup of water
Ammassalik Eskimo -
Offering his wife to a guest by means of a culturally sanctioned game of “putting out the lamp” Incredibly jealous, if wife copulated with a man outside of the lamp agreement
Toda of Southern India -
Polyandrous Husband would not be upset at all, if the man were at his wife’s mokhthodvaiol This custom allows husbands or wives to take lovers, after consent from the spouse
1
Attractiveness Physical Attractiveness - Is physical attractiveness universal or culturally variable?
Change of Attractiveness Standards
2
Universals of Physical Attractiveness -
-
-
Some aspects of physical attractiveness have been found to be universal: Clear Complexion o People are attracted to healthy mates o Skin signals health more directly than any other visible aspect o The cosmetics industry provides people with ways to make their complexion look clearer o People have strong aversive reactions to skin conditions Bilateral Symmetry o Another market of health is bilateral symmetry o When an organism develops under ideal conditions, its right and left sides will be symmetrical o Genetic mutations, pathogens, or stressors in the womb can lead to asymmetrical development o On average, asymmetrical faces are viewed as less attractive Average Features o Faces with averagely proportioned features are more attractive than faces that deviate from average o Average features are less likely to contain genetic abnormalities and are more symmetrical o We can process any kind of stimulus that is closer to a prototype easier than one that is further from a prototype Easy processing is associated with a pleasant feeling that gets interpreted as attractive o Which male and female is most attractive?
Researchers found that, when averaging Japanese faces with Australian faces together (creating Eurasian faces), these Eurasian faces were seen as more attractive than their component faces
3
Cultural Variability of Physical Attractiveness -
Body Weight o It is noteworthy that “average is attractive” does not apply to aspects beyond facial features This is seen with people’s weight, height, muscles, boobs, and hips For such aspects, it’s bodies that depart from average that are seen as more attractive o The kinds of body weights that are perceived to be most attractive vary considerably across cultures
-
In 1951, anthropologists concluded that heavier women were universally found to be more attractive o E.g., in Western Africa, the term “fat” is often viewed as complimentary, indicating strength and beauty In many ways, in the West, women who are usually thin fit the ideal body weight o These ideals for thinner women have been more prevalent during the past few decades, while actual average body weights have increased
-
4
Value of Attractiveness -
Much research, largely conducted with Westerners finds that physically attractive people receive many other kinds of benefits – Tyranny of the Beautiful Physically attractive Canadian election candidates received 3x as many votes as unattractive ones More attractive MBAs earned more money than less attractive MBAs Attractive defendants in misdemeanor cases are assigned lighter sentences than less attractive ones
Anderson, Adams, and Plaut (2008) - This study investigated the role of physical attractiveness to life outcomes in the US and in Ghana - Participants indicated how satisfied they were with various life outcomes (e.g., their career, friendships, abilities, etc.) - The researchers took photo of participants and each photo was rated for physical attractiveness - Physical attractiveness ratings were used to predict participants’ life outcomes and relationship satisfaction - Researchers found that: o Physically attractive Americans were more satisfied with their lives – positive correlations between satisfaction and attractiveness o Physically attractive Ghanaians were not more satisfied with their lives – negative correlations between satisfaction and attractiveness o The “Tyranny of the Beautiful” may be largely restricted to independent cultural contexts
Relational Mobility -
-
-
Why would attractiveness not be important or valuable/beneficial in some cultures? One key cultural distinction, relational mobility, has implications for the basis of relationships o This affects how we form and view relationships o Relational mobility can be either high or low, and parallels approximately with independence and interdependence In independent cultures, people typically have much freedom in deciding with who they will have relationships o The social environment presents many opportunities for people to create new social ties o They have more flexibility in deciding whether or not to associate with someone not in their in-group o This is referred to as high relational mobility In interdependent cultures, people typically have less freedom in deciding who they have relationships with o The social environment does not provide very many opportunities to create new relationships o Significant relationships come from various in-groups, and such in-groups are not chosen –they exist by default o This is referred to as low relational mobility
5
Mechanisms of Attraction - How do people become drawn to each other? - A couple of mechanisms: o Mere exposure effect –a culturally universal mechanisms whereby the more we are exposed to a stimulus, the more we are attracted to it o Similarity-attraction effect –a non-universal (culturally variable) mechanism whereby people are attracted to others if they share many similarities Not universal –evidence of cultural variability (particularly strong in cultures with high relational mobility) Benefits of Attractiveness - In cultures with high relational mobility o Lots of opportunities for people to seek new interactions o Thus beneficial to attract potential new relationship partners - In cultures with low relational mobility o Much more stable relationship networks o Characteristics that attract people are relatively less useful Friends and Enemies - What do you think about this poem from Ghana? Beware of friends. Some are snakes under grass; Some are lions in sheep’s clothing; Some are jealousies behind their facades of praises; Some are just no good; Beware of friends. - How might one explain this view of “enemies are among friends” idea with relational mobility? - Ghanaians (in a culture with low relational mobility) report having fewer friends than Americans and feel that having many friends is foolish - Westerners say they don’t have enemies because they avoid people they don’t like - Ghanaians view “enemyships” as a natural state of life
6
Love -
My friend, I love you as one ought to love, to excess, in madness, ecstasy, and despair –Julie De Lespinasse
Is Passion Universal? –Shaver, Wu, and Schwartz (1991) - Interviewed young people in North America, Italy, and China about emotional experience - Participants in different cultures agreed on many emotional states except love o North Americans and Italians – Love Happiness o Chinese – Love sadness Romantic Love - Romantic love is an evolutionary adaptation to ensure that children had adequate resources and protection - Romantic love is universal –however, the idea of marriages being based on romantic love is not universal o Arranged marriages have been common in many cultures Marriage Systems - Arranged marriages are more common in cultures with extended family systems o Some have argued that social pressures from an extended family system keep a relationship together - Love marriages are more likely in cultures with nuclear family structures o In the absence of this pressure, love serves as the glue that maintains a relationship - Arranged marriages may be puzzling to Westerners because this goes against many Western assumptions about love and marriage –however, arranged marriages are often quite successful - Studies find that arranged marriages are at least as happy as love marriages (except for women in China and Japan)
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Most arranged marriages end up becoming loving relationships, even if they start out without love
7
