CH. 15: Differential Reinforcement - Applying reinforcement and ...
CH. 15: Differential Reinforcement - Applying reinforcement and extinction to increase the occurrence of a desirable target behavior or to decrease the occurrence of undesirable behaviors. There are 3 types of differential reinforcement procedures: differential reinforcement of alternative behavior, differential reinforcement of other behavior, and differential reinforcement of low rates of responding Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior - DRA is behavioral procedure used to increase the frequency of a desirable behavior and decrease frequency of undesirable behaviors. DRA involves combining reinforcement for a desirable behavior and extinction of undesirable behavior Ex: Mrs. Williams give attention only for positive things by her. The behavioral procedure the nurses used to get Mrs. Williams to say more positive things and to complain less is DRA. - When to use DRA: Determine whether it is appropriate (do u want to increase rate of a desirable behavior, is behavior already occurring at least occasionally, and do you have access to a reinforcer tht u can deliver after the occurrence of the behavior) - DRA is a procedure for strengthening a desirable behavior. However, the desirable behavior must be occurring at least occasionally if you’re to reinforce it. If procedures such as shaping or prompting are used initially to evoke the behavior, DRA may be used to strengthen and maintain the behavior How to Use DRA Define the desirable behavior Define the undesirable behavior Identify the reinforcer: you could use the reinforcer that is maintaining the undesirable behavior or ask them questions. Another option is try out diff stimuli and see which ones function as reinforcers which is called preference assessment which can be conducted in 3 diff ways: single stimulus assessment, paired stimulus assessment, and multiple stimulus assessment - In each approach, the researcher identifies a number of potential reinforcers, presents the potential reinforcers to the person, and records which one they approach. To determine if an item was an reinforcer you would deliver it contingent on a behavior and show that the behavior increased; reinforcer assessment - Single stimulus assessment: each potential reinforcer is presented one at a time, to see whether the individual approaches the stimulus or not. After each stimulus is presented numerous times, the rsrcher calculates the percentage of times tht the individual approached each stimulus to indicate which stimuli are likely to be reinforcers
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Paired stimulus assessment: also called forced choice or paired choice procedure, 2 potential reinforcers are presented to the individual and the rsrcher records which stimulus the individual approaches. Each stimulus from a pool of potential reinforcers are presented with every other stimulus multiple times and the researcher calculates the percentage of times that the individual approached each stimulus to indicate which stimuli are likely to be reinforcers Multiple stimulus assessment: an array of potential reinforcers is presented to the individual and the rsrchr records which potential reinforcer the individual approaches or chooses first. Then the stimulus is removed from the array and the rsrcher records which stimulus the individual chooses next. This stimulus is removed from the array and the process continues until the individual has approached or chosen all stimuli. The array of stimuli is presented a number of times to identify the order in which the stimuli are chosen, the stimuli chosen first are likely to be stronger reinforcers than the stimuli chosen last. The reinforcement procedure is called multiple stimulus without replacement (MSWO) procedure. Another technique to assess reinforcers is to mke each potential reinforcer contingent on an operant response. If frequency or duration of the response increases when a stimulus is contingent on the response u have demonstrated tht the stimulus is a reinforcer. Ex: Wacker’s students pressed switch to activate different electric games or instruments (music, fan, train, etc.), the longer the duration, then that was the reinforcer for the student. Reinforce desirable behavior immediately and consistently Eliminate reinforcement for the undesirable behavior Use intermittent reinforcement to maintain the target behavior Program for generalization
Variation of DRA - Differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior (DRI): alternative behavior is physically incompatible with the prblm behavior and therefore the 2 behaviors can’t occur at the same time. - Differential reinforcement of communication (DRC) but it is called functional communication training; the individual with the problem behavior learns to make a communication response tht is functionally equivalent to the prblm behavior. When the communication produces the same reinforcing outcome as the prblm behavior, there is no longer any reason for the prblm behavior to occur. In the functional communication training, an individual with a problem behavior reinforced by attention would learn to ask for attention. An individual with a problem behavior reinforced by escape from a particular situation would learn to ask for a break from the situation. The communication response
that is reinforced in this variation of DRA is more efficient than the prblm behavior; one of the advatnages of communication as an alternative. Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior - DRO- Knight and McKensize conducted a study to evaluate the effects of differential reinforcement for decreasing bedtime thumb sucking in children. - In DRO, the reinforcer is contingent on the absence of the problem behavior. Reinforcer is no longer delivered after the prblm behavior but the reinforcer is delivered after an interval of time in which the prblm behavior does not occur. If the reinforcer is delivered only after periods in which the prblm behavior is absent, the prblm behavior decreases through extinction, and time periods without the prblm behavior should increase. If periods without prblm behavior increase, occurent of the prblm behavior must naturally decrease - According to Reynolds, DRO involves reinforcement for not responding. You will reinforce the absence of the problem behavior. Although other behaviors may occur when the problem behavior is not occurring, you don’t identify other behavior to reinforce in place of the problem behavior
Implementing DRO - Identify the reinforcer for the problem behavior: you must eliminate the reinforcer maintaining the problem behavior for a DRO procedure to be successful. - Reinforcing the absence of the problem behavior would not be effective if instances of the prblm behavior continued to be reinforced - If it’s not possible to use extinction for the problem behavior, it usually will not be possible to use DRO effectively except when reinforcer for the absence of the prblm behavior is more pwrful or potent than the reinforcer for problem behavior itself. - Identify the reinforcer to use in the DRO procedure: use the consequence for that functions as a reinforcer for that particular person. A consequence that is certain to function as a reinforcer for the person is the reinforcer for the problem behavior identified in the functional assessment. - Choose the initial DRO time interval: DRO involves delivering the reinforcer after an interval of time in which the problem behavior does not occur. - To implement DRO, choose initial time interval for delivering the reinforcer. The length of interval should be tied to the baseline rate of the problem behavior: if the problem behavior occurs frequently, the DRO interval will be short; if it occurs infrequently, the DRO interval will be longer. You should choose an interval length that will result in a high probability of reinforcement.
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Ex: if prblm occurs for 6 mins in an hr, DRO interval must be at less than 6 mins so there is a good probability that the problem behavior won’t occur in the interval and the reinforcer can be delivered. As the frequency of the problem behavior decreases, the DRO intervals can be lengthened gradually. Eliminate the reinforcer of the problem behavior and deliver the reinforcer for the absence of the problem behavior: the change agent is taught to implement the procedure. The change agent is instructed to eliminate the reinforcer for the problem behavior and to deliver the reinforcer at the end of every interval in which the problem behavior does not occur. The change agent (parent or teacher) has a stopwatch to time the DRO interval. At the end of each interval, the stopwatch cues the change agent to deliver the reinforcer if the problem behavior has not occurred. Reset the interval if the problem behavior occurs: if the problem behavior does not occur at some point, the reinforcer is not delivered, and the interval for reinforcement is reset. reinforcer is given when target behavior does not occur for a specific period of time Gradually increase the Interval Length: only do it after the prblm behavior is decreased and the client is receiving the reinforcer after almost all intervals. Eventually, the DRO interval is increased to a level that will be manageable for the change agent in the long term. Repp, Barton, and Brulle compared 2 variations of DRO: the Whole interval DRO, the problem behavior must be absent for the whole interval for the reinforcer to be delivered. Momentary DRO, the problem behavior must be absent at the end of the interval for the reinforcer to be delivered. WIDRO was more effective.
Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates of Responding (DRL) - DRL- a reinforcer is delivered contingent on a lower rate of responding during a period of time. - In DRL the reinforcer is delivered when the rate of the problem behavior is decreased to a criterion level. You don’t reinforce the absence of the behavior rather you reinforce a lower rate of the problem behavior - This procedure can be used when a low rate of the problem behavior can be tolerated or when the behavior is a problem only because of its high rate - Variations of DRL: DRL schedules can be programmed in 2 main ways. In one variation, reinforcement is delivered if fewer than a specified number of responses occur in a period of time which is called full session DRL. - Spaced-responding DRL: there must be a specified amnt of time btwn responses for the reinforcer to be delivered. The objective is to pace the behavior. ex: raising hands only after 15 mins after the previous time their hands were raised. When the behavior occurs
after the end of the DRL interval, the behavior is reinforced. However, if the behavior occurs before end of the DRL interval, the behavior isn’t reinforced and the interval is reset. How are DRO and Space-responding DRL different? - In DRO, the reinforcer is delivered for the absence of the behavior after an interval of time has passed. If the behavior occurs, the reinforcer is not delivered. - In spaced responding DRL, the reinforcer is delivered for the occurrence of the behavior after an interval of time has passed since the last instance of the behavior - DRO is used when u want to eliminate a problem behavior; spaced responding DRL is used when you want to decrease rate of a behavior that occurs too frequently - A third type of DRL, interval DRL. It’s similar to spaced-responding DRL. Interval DRL involves dividing a session into intervals and providing the reinforcer if no more than one response occurred in each interval. Spaced responding DRL entails a specific interval of time btwn each response, interval DRL entails an avg time btwn each response. Implementing DRL Procedures - First step is to determine whether DRL is appropriate procedure to use. DRL is appropriate if the goal is to decrease the behavior - Next step is to determine an acceptable level of the behavior. In full session DRL, you must decide how many responses per session are acceptable. In space responding DRL, you must choose the interval of time that must elapse btwn each occurrence of the behavior. If the timing of the behavior is important it is necessary to have an interval of time between responses, space-responding DRL is most appropriate but full session is most appropriate when trying to decrease the overall rate of the behavior in a session - Full session DRL you should tell client maximum number of responses that is acceptable in the session and in spaced responding DRL, you should tell client how much time you expect btwn each instance of the behavior - Stereotypic behavior is repetitive behavior that does not serve any social function for the person. The behaviors are often called self stimulatory behaviors because they produce some form of sensory stimulation for the person. - The time between the responses is called an inter-response time (IRT) - Extinction is used when the problem behavior occurs (DRA and DRO) or when the rate of the behavior exceeds the criterion for reinforcement (DRL) - Negative reinforcement is used in DRO or DRA when termination of an aversive stimulus is the reinforcer for an alternative behavior (DRA) or the reinforcer for the absence of the problem behavior (DRO)
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Paired stimulus assessment: also called forced choice or paired choice procedure, 2 potential reinforcers are presented to the individual and the rsrcher records which stimulus the individual approaches. Each stimulus from a pool of potential reinforcers are presented with every other stimulus multiple times and the researcher calculates the percentage of times that the individual approached each stimulus to indicate which stimuli are likely to be reinforcers Multiple stimulus assessment: an array of potential reinforcers is presented to the individual and the rsrchr records which potential reinforcer the individual approaches or chooses first. Then the stimulus is removed from the array and the rsrcher records which stimulus the individual chooses next. This stimulus is removed from the array and the process continues until the individual has approached or chosen all stimuli. The array of stimuli is presented a number of times to identify the order in which the stimuli are chosen, the stimuli chosen first are likely to be stronger reinforcers than the stimuli chosen last. The reinforcement procedure is called multiple stimulus without replacement (MSWO) procedure. Another technique to assess reinforcers is to mke each potential reinforcer contingent on an operant response. If frequency or duration of the response increases when a stimulus is contingent on the response u have demonstrated tht the stimulus is a reinforcer. Ex: Wacker’s students pressed switch to activate different electric games or instruments (music, fan, train, etc.), the longer the duration, then that was the reinforcer for the student. Reinforce desirable behavior immediately and consistently Eliminate reinforcement for the undesirable behavior Use intermittent reinforcement to maintain the target behavior Program for generalization
Variation of DRA - Differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior (DRI): alternative behavior is physically incompatible with the prblm behavior and therefore the 2 behaviors can’t occur at the same time. - Differential reinforcement of communication (DRC) but it is called functional communication training; the individual with the problem behavior learns to make a communication response tht is functionally equivalent to the prblm behavior. When the communication produces the same reinforcing outcome as the prblm behavior, there is no longer any reason for the prblm behavior to occur. In the functional communication training, an individual with a problem behavior reinforced by attention would learn to ask for attention. An individual with a problem behavior reinforced by escape from a particular situation would learn to ask for a break from the situation. The communication response
that is reinforced in this variation of DRA is more efficient than the prblm behavior; one of the advatnages of communication as an alternative. Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior - DRO- Knight and McKensize conducted a study to evaluate the effects of differential reinforcement for decreasing bedtime thumb sucking in children. - In DRO, the reinforcer is contingent on the absence of the problem behavior. Reinforcer is no longer delivered after the prblm behavior but the reinforcer is delivered after an interval of time in which the prblm behavior does not occur. If the reinforcer is delivered only after periods in which the prblm behavior is absent, the prblm behavior decreases through extinction, and time periods without the prblm behavior should increase. If periods without prblm behavior increase, occurent of the prblm behavior must naturally decrease - According to Reynolds, DRO involves reinforcement for not responding. You will reinforce the absence of the problem behavior. Although other behaviors may occur when the problem behavior is not occurring, you don’t identify other behavior to reinforce in place of the problem behavior
Implementing DRO - Identify the reinforcer for the problem behavior: you must eliminate the reinforcer maintaining the problem behavior for a DRO procedure to be successful. - Reinforcing the absence of the problem behavior would not be effective if instances of the prblm behavior continued to be reinforced - If it’s not possible to use extinction for the problem behavior, it usually will not be possible to use DRO effectively except when reinforcer for the absence of the prblm behavior is more pwrful or potent than the reinforcer for problem behavior itself. - Identify the reinforcer to use in the DRO procedure: use the consequence for that functions as a reinforcer for that particular person. A consequence that is certain to function as a reinforcer for the person is the reinforcer for the problem behavior identified in the functional assessment. - Choose the initial DRO time interval: DRO involves delivering the reinforcer after an interval of time in which the problem behavior does not occur. - To implement DRO, choose initial time interval for delivering the reinforcer. The length of interval should be tied to the baseline rate of the problem behavior: if the problem behavior occurs frequently, the DRO interval will be short; if it occurs infrequently, the DRO interval will be longer. You should choose an interval length that will result in a high probability of reinforcement.
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Ex: if prblm occurs for 6 mins in an hr, DRO interval must be at less than 6 mins so there is a good probability that the problem behavior won’t occur in the interval and the reinforcer can be delivered. As the frequency of the problem behavior decreases, the DRO intervals can be lengthened gradually. Eliminate the reinforcer of the problem behavior and deliver the reinforcer for the absence of the problem behavior: the change agent is taught to implement the procedure. The change agent is instructed to eliminate the reinforcer for the problem behavior and to deliver the reinforcer at the end of every interval in which the problem behavior does not occur. The change agent (parent or teacher) has a stopwatch to time the DRO interval. At the end of each interval, the stopwatch cues the change agent to deliver the reinforcer if the problem behavior has not occurred. Reset the interval if the problem behavior occurs: if the problem behavior does not occur at some point, the reinforcer is not delivered, and the interval for reinforcement is reset. reinforcer is given when target behavior does not occur for a specific period of time Gradually increase the Interval Length: only do it after the prblm behavior is decreased and the client is receiving the reinforcer after almost all intervals. Eventually, the DRO interval is increased to a level that will be manageable for the change agent in the long term. Repp, Barton, and Brulle compared 2 variations of DRO: the Whole interval DRO, the problem behavior must be absent for the whole interval for the reinforcer to be delivered. Momentary DRO, the problem behavior must be absent at the end of the interval for the reinforcer to be delivered. WIDRO was more effective.
Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates of Responding (DRL) - DRL- a reinforcer is delivered contingent on a lower rate of responding during a period of time. - In DRL the reinforcer is delivered when the rate of the problem behavior is decreased to a criterion level. You don’t reinforce the absence of the behavior rather you reinforce a lower rate of the problem behavior - This procedure can be used when a low rate of the problem behavior can be tolerated or when the behavior is a problem only because of its high rate - Variations of DRL: DRL schedules can be programmed in 2 main ways. In one variation, reinforcement is delivered if fewer than a specified number of responses occur in a period of time which is called full session DRL. - Spaced-responding DRL: there must be a specified amnt of time btwn responses for the reinforcer to be delivered. The objective is to pace the behavior. ex: raising hands only after 15 mins after the previous time their hands were raised. When the behavior occurs
after the end of the DRL interval, the behavior is reinforced. However, if the behavior occurs before end of the DRL interval, the behavior isn’t reinforced and the interval is reset. How are DRO and Space-responding DRL different? - In DRO, the reinforcer is delivered for the absence of the behavior after an interval of time has passed. If the behavior occurs, the reinforcer is not delivered. - In spaced responding DRL, the reinforcer is delivered for the occurrence of the behavior after an interval of time has passed since the last instance of the behavior - DRO is used when u want to eliminate a problem behavior; spaced responding DRL is used when you want to decrease rate of a behavior that occurs too frequently - A third type of DRL, interval DRL. It’s similar to spaced-responding DRL. Interval DRL involves dividing a session into intervals and providing the reinforcer if no more than one response occurred in each interval. Spaced responding DRL entails a specific interval of time btwn each response, interval DRL entails an avg time btwn each response. Implementing DRL Procedures - First step is to determine whether DRL is appropriate procedure to use. DRL is appropriate if the goal is to decrease the behavior - Next step is to determine an acceptable level of the behavior. In full session DRL, you must decide how many responses per session are acceptable. In space responding DRL, you must choose the interval of time that must elapse btwn each occurrence of the behavior. If the timing of the behavior is important it is necessary to have an interval of time between responses, space-responding DRL is most appropriate but full session is most appropriate when trying to decrease the overall rate of the behavior in a session - Full session DRL you should tell client maximum number of responses that is acceptable in the session and in spaced responding DRL, you should tell client how much time you expect btwn each instance of the behavior - Stereotypic behavior is repetitive behavior that does not serve any social function for the person. The behaviors are often called self stimulatory behaviors because they produce some form of sensory stimulation for the person. - The time between the responses is called an inter-response time (IRT) - Extinction is used when the problem behavior occurs (DRA and DRO) or when the rate of the behavior exceeds the criterion for reinforcement (DRL) - Negative reinforcement is used in DRO or DRA when termination of an aversive stimulus is the reinforcer for an alternative behavior (DRA) or the reinforcer for the absence of the problem behavior (DRO)
