Chapter 7Finding and Using Negotiation Power Why Power Important ...
Chapter 7Finding and Using Negotiation Power Why Power Important to Negotiators? Seeking power in negotiations from 1 of 2 perceptions: 1. Negotiator believes he has less power than other party 2. Negotiator believes he has more power than other party Definition of Power Two perspectives on power: used to dominate/control other person “powerover” used to work together with other person “powerwith” “an actor…has power in a given situation (situational power) to the degree he can satisfy the purposes (goals, desires, or wants) that he is attempting to fulfill in that situation. Power is a relational concept; it doesn’t reside in the individual but rather in the relationship of the person to his environment. Thus, the power of an actor in a given situation is determined by the characteristics of the situation as well as by his own characteristics.” Types of Power ∙expert power ∙rewardbased powerhave ability to give you what you want. ∙coercivehave power to punish ∙legitimate ∙referent have power through reputation Sources of Power A. Info sources of power B. Personal sources of power C. Power based on position in organization D. Relationshipbased sources of power E. Contextual sources of power A. Info Sources of Power Info most common source of power derived from negotiator’s ability to assemble and organize data to support his position, arguments, or desired outcomes. tend to challenge either party’s position or desired outcomes, or to undermine effectiveness of other’s negotiating arguments. B. Power based on Personality and Individual Differences ∙Personal Orientation ∙Cognitive Orientation ideologies about power ∙Motivational Orientation specific motives to use power ∙Disposition and Skills orientation to cooperation/competition ∙Moral Orientation philosophical orientation to use power C. Power Based on Position in Organization Two major sources of power in organization: Legitimategrounded in title, duties, and responsibilities of job description and level within the organization’s hierarchy. Power based on control of resources associated with that position. D. Power based on Resource Control People who control resources have capacity to give them to someone who will do what they want, and withhold them (or take them away) from someone who doesn’t do what they want. Some of the most important resources: money supplies human capital time equipment critical services interpersonal support
E. Power Based on Relationships ∙Goal Interdependence how parties view their goals ∙Reference Power based on appeal to common experiences, common past, common fate, or membership in same group. ∙Networks power derived from whatever flow through that particular location in the same structure (usually info and resources) ex: Registrar has power over us in terms of adding/taking classes An Organizational Network know people that have more connections has more power than someone on the outskirts of that organization If you’re at the center of network , you have more power than anyone else Key Aspects of Networks ∙Tie Strengths indication of strength or quality of relationship with others ∙TieContent resource that passes along the tie with the other person ∙Network Structure overall set of relationships within the social system Aspects of Network Structure That Determines Power: ∙centrality ∙criticality and relevance ∙ flexibility ∙visibility ∙coalitions F. Contextual Sources of Powerusing environment to advantage power based in the context, situation, or environment where negotiation takes place. ∙BATNAsalternative deal that a negotiator pursues if he doesn’t come to an agreement with the other party. Culture: often contains implicit “rules” about use of power ∙Agents, constituencies, and external audiences Dealing with other who have more power: never do all or nothing deal make other party smaller make yourself bigger build momentum through doing deals in sequence use power of competition to leverage power constrain yourself good info is always a source of power ask many questions to gain more info do what you can to manage the process
Chapter 8Influence Influence in Negotiation actual strategies and messages that individuals deploy to bring about attitudinal or behavioral change. people differ widely in ability to use effectively Two routes to influence *See diagram in book ∙Central Route occurs consciously and involves integrating message into individuals previously existing cognitive frameworks). ∙Peripheral Route characterized by subtle cues and context, with less cognitive processing of message and is automatically. Central RouteThe message and its delivery
structures (though
thought to occur
3 major issues to consider when constructing message: ∙content of message facts and topics that should be covered ∙structure of message arrangement and organization of topics and facts ∙delivery style how message should be presented Message Content make offer attractive to other party frame message so other party will say yes make message normative—by following course of action he will be acting in accordance with both his values and some higher code of conduct ex: “save a tree” suggest an “agreement in principle” Message Structure ∙1sided messages: ignore arguments and opinions that might support other party’s position ∙2sided messages: mention/describe other party’s view and show why it’s less desireable Message components: neg. can help other party Repetition enhances likelihood that message will be understood Conclusions with intelligent ppl, or ppl who not made up mind, leave conclusion open for ppl whose ideas well formulated or strong, state the conclusion Persuasive stylehow to pitch message encourage active participation use vivid language and metaphors recite the receiver’s fears violate receiver’s expectations (get them to think outside the box) Peripheral Route ∙receiver attends less to substance of persuasive arguments and instead susceptible to more “automatic” influence through subtle cues usually occurs when target of influence is either unmotivated or unable to attend carefully to substance ` contained within a persuasive message Aspect of Message that foster Peripheral Influence ∙Message Order important points should be made early exposing the receiver to “primary effect” ∙Format arguments may be more or less effective depending on channel in use or presentation format ∙Distractions when receivers are distracted, they’re less able to engage in issuerelevant thinking Source characteristics that foster peripheral influence ∙source credibility qualification and expertise reputation for trustworthiness and integrity self presentation 1st impressions status differences intent to persuade associates persistence and tenacity Source Characteristics Source/personal attractiveness friendliness ingratiation
likeability helping the other party perceived similarity emotion Authority people with authority have more influence than people without Aspects of Context that foster peripheral influence ∙Reciprocity when receive something from another, you should respond in future with favor in return ∙Commitment once people have decided something, they can be remarkably consistent in beliefs ∙Social proof people look to others to determine correct the response in many situations. ∙Scarcity when things less available, they’ll have more influence ∙Use of reward and punishment exchange relies on resources as the power base: “If I do X for you, will you do Y for me?” threat punishment Role of ReceiversTargets of Influence ∙Understanding the others perspective exploring or ignoring the other’s position—reinforces points you like in other party’s proposals selectively paraphrase ∙Resisting others influence have a BATNA and know how to use it make a public commitment inoculate yourself against the other party’s arguments (have arguments against what you think they’ll
argue on)
Chapter 9—Ethics in Negotiation What do we mean by Ethics and why does it matter in Negotiation? Ethics: ∙broadly applied social standards for what’s right and wrong in a particular situation ∙grow out of particular philosophy which: define nature of world we live in prescribe rules for living together 4 Approaches to Ethical Reasoning 1. End Result Ethics: rightness of action determined by evaluating its consequences. 2. Duty Ethics : rightness of action determined by one’s obligation to adhere to consistent principles, laws, what’s right and wrongit’s written down/written in stone. 3. Social Contract Ethics: rightness of action based on customs and norms of a particular society or 4. Personalistic Ethics: rightness of action based on one’s own conscience and moral standards. Resolving Moral Problems diagram
and social standards that define community. 1 step from law
Questions of Ethical Conduct that Arise in Negotiation ∙Using ethically ambiguous tactics: It’s mostly (all) about the truth ∙Identifying ethically ambiguous tactics and attitudes towards their use what ethically ambiguous tactics are there? does tolerance for ethically ambiguous tactics lead to their actual use? is it ok to use ethically ambiguous tactics? ∙Deception by omission vs. commission omission: failing to describe information that would benefit the other party commission: actually lying about the commonvalue issue ∙The decision to use ethically ambiguous tactics: A Model Why use Deceptive Tactics? Motives and Consequences ∙The Power Motive purpose with using ethically ambiguous negotiation tactics is to increase the negotiator’s power bargaining environment. ∙Other motives to behave unethically negotiator more likely to use ethically ambiguous tactics as appropriate if they anticipate that the expected motivation would be more competitive. Consequences of Deception in Negotiation A negotiator who employs unethical tactic will experience positive or negative consequences. Consequences based on: ∙Effectiveness: whether tactic effective or not. ∙Reaction of others: how the other person, constituencies, and audiences evaluate the tactic. ∙Reaction of self: how the negotiator evaluates the tactic, and feels about using the tactic.
Explanations and Justifications (of your own mind) ∙primary purpose of explanations and justifications is: to rationalize, explain, or excuse the behavior to verbalize some good, legitimate reason why the tactic was necessary. Rationalizations for Unethical Conduct p. 276 ∙ Tactic was unavoidable ∙ Tactic was harmless ∙ Tactic will help avoid negative consequences ∙ Tactic will produce good consequences, or the tactic was altruistically motivated. ∙ “They had it coming”, or “They deserve it”, or “I’m just getting my due” ∙ “They were going to do anyway, so I’ll do it first” ∙ “He started it” ∙ Tactic fair and appropriate in situation What Factors Shape Negotiator’s Predisposition to use Unethical Tactics? A. Demographic Factors ∙ Sex: women tend to make more ethically rigorous judgments (better ethical decisions) than men. ∙ Age and Experience: both men and women behave more ethically with age individuals with more work experience or more direct work experience, less likely to use negotiation. (feel they’re apart of company values and goals after long time) ∙ Professional Orientation: ppl in different professions differ in judgments of perceived appropriateness. ∙ Nationality and Culture: Significant differences are found across different nationalities and cultural back grounds. B. Personality Differences ∙Competitiveness and Cooperativeness ∙ Machiavellianism some individuals are more willing and able con artists are more likely to lie when they need to
in the
other’s
unethical tactics in
better able to lie without feeling anxious about it more persuasive and effective in their lies ∙ Locus of Control degree someone believes outcome they obtain are largely a result of their own ability and effort control) vs. fate of chance (external control) individuals who are high in internal are more likely to do what they think is right. Moral Development vs. Personal Values ∙Preconventional Level (Stages 1 and 2) individual concerned with concrete outcomes that meet his own immediate needs, particularly rewards and punishments. ∙Conventional Level (Stages 3 and 4) individual defines what is right on the basis of what his immediate social situation and peer endorses or what society in general seems to want. ∙ Principle Level (Stages 5 and 6) individual bases right/wrong on broader set of universal values and principles. Higher the Stage People Achieve: more complex their moral reasoning should be more ethical decisions should be Contextual Issues on Unethical Conduct past experiences role if incentives characteristics of other party relationship between the negotiator and the other party relative power between negotiators mode of communication acting as an agent vs. representing your own views group and organizational norms and pressures How can Negotiators Deal with Other Party’s Use of Deception asking probing questions phrase questions in different ways force other party to lie or back off test other party “call” the tactic ignore the tactic discuss what you see and offer to help other party change to more honest behaviors if not against law; you’re only spreading opinion respond in kind
(internal
external
group
E. Power Based on Relationships ∙Goal Interdependence how parties view their goals ∙Reference Power based on appeal to common experiences, common past, common fate, or membership in same group. ∙Networks power derived from whatever flow through that particular location in the same structure (usually info and resources) ex: Registrar has power over us in terms of adding/taking classes An Organizational Network know people that have more connections has more power than someone on the outskirts of that organization If you’re at the center of network , you have more power than anyone else Key Aspects of Networks ∙Tie Strengths indication of strength or quality of relationship with others ∙TieContent resource that passes along the tie with the other person ∙Network Structure overall set of relationships within the social system Aspects of Network Structure That Determines Power: ∙centrality ∙criticality and relevance ∙ flexibility ∙visibility ∙coalitions F. Contextual Sources of Powerusing environment to advantage power based in the context, situation, or environment where negotiation takes place. ∙BATNAsalternative deal that a negotiator pursues if he doesn’t come to an agreement with the other party. Culture: often contains implicit “rules” about use of power ∙Agents, constituencies, and external audiences Dealing with other who have more power: never do all or nothing deal make other party smaller make yourself bigger build momentum through doing deals in sequence use power of competition to leverage power constrain yourself good info is always a source of power ask many questions to gain more info do what you can to manage the process
Chapter 8Influence Influence in Negotiation actual strategies and messages that individuals deploy to bring about attitudinal or behavioral change. people differ widely in ability to use effectively Two routes to influence *See diagram in book ∙Central Route occurs consciously and involves integrating message into individuals previously existing cognitive frameworks). ∙Peripheral Route characterized by subtle cues and context, with less cognitive processing of message and is automatically. Central RouteThe message and its delivery
structures (though
thought to occur
3 major issues to consider when constructing message: ∙content of message facts and topics that should be covered ∙structure of message arrangement and organization of topics and facts ∙delivery style how message should be presented Message Content make offer attractive to other party frame message so other party will say yes make message normative—by following course of action he will be acting in accordance with both his values and some higher code of conduct ex: “save a tree” suggest an “agreement in principle” Message Structure ∙1sided messages: ignore arguments and opinions that might support other party’s position ∙2sided messages: mention/describe other party’s view and show why it’s less desireable Message components: neg. can help other party Repetition enhances likelihood that message will be understood Conclusions with intelligent ppl, or ppl who not made up mind, leave conclusion open for ppl whose ideas well formulated or strong, state the conclusion Persuasive stylehow to pitch message encourage active participation use vivid language and metaphors recite the receiver’s fears violate receiver’s expectations (get them to think outside the box) Peripheral Route ∙receiver attends less to substance of persuasive arguments and instead susceptible to more “automatic” influence through subtle cues usually occurs when target of influence is either unmotivated or unable to attend carefully to substance ` contained within a persuasive message Aspect of Message that foster Peripheral Influence ∙Message Order important points should be made early exposing the receiver to “primary effect” ∙Format arguments may be more or less effective depending on channel in use or presentation format ∙Distractions when receivers are distracted, they’re less able to engage in issuerelevant thinking Source characteristics that foster peripheral influence ∙source credibility qualification and expertise reputation for trustworthiness and integrity self presentation 1st impressions status differences intent to persuade associates persistence and tenacity Source Characteristics Source/personal attractiveness friendliness ingratiation
likeability helping the other party perceived similarity emotion Authority people with authority have more influence than people without Aspects of Context that foster peripheral influence ∙Reciprocity when receive something from another, you should respond in future with favor in return ∙Commitment once people have decided something, they can be remarkably consistent in beliefs ∙Social proof people look to others to determine correct the response in many situations. ∙Scarcity when things less available, they’ll have more influence ∙Use of reward and punishment exchange relies on resources as the power base: “If I do X for you, will you do Y for me?” threat punishment Role of ReceiversTargets of Influence ∙Understanding the others perspective exploring or ignoring the other’s position—reinforces points you like in other party’s proposals selectively paraphrase ∙Resisting others influence have a BATNA and know how to use it make a public commitment inoculate yourself against the other party’s arguments (have arguments against what you think they’ll
argue on)
Chapter 9—Ethics in Negotiation What do we mean by Ethics and why does it matter in Negotiation? Ethics: ∙broadly applied social standards for what’s right and wrong in a particular situation ∙grow out of particular philosophy which: define nature of world we live in prescribe rules for living together 4 Approaches to Ethical Reasoning 1. End Result Ethics: rightness of action determined by evaluating its consequences. 2. Duty Ethics : rightness of action determined by one’s obligation to adhere to consistent principles, laws, what’s right and wrongit’s written down/written in stone. 3. Social Contract Ethics: rightness of action based on customs and norms of a particular society or 4. Personalistic Ethics: rightness of action based on one’s own conscience and moral standards. Resolving Moral Problems diagram
and social standards that define community. 1 step from law
Questions of Ethical Conduct that Arise in Negotiation ∙Using ethically ambiguous tactics: It’s mostly (all) about the truth ∙Identifying ethically ambiguous tactics and attitudes towards their use what ethically ambiguous tactics are there? does tolerance for ethically ambiguous tactics lead to their actual use? is it ok to use ethically ambiguous tactics? ∙Deception by omission vs. commission omission: failing to describe information that would benefit the other party commission: actually lying about the commonvalue issue ∙The decision to use ethically ambiguous tactics: A Model Why use Deceptive Tactics? Motives and Consequences ∙The Power Motive purpose with using ethically ambiguous negotiation tactics is to increase the negotiator’s power bargaining environment. ∙Other motives to behave unethically negotiator more likely to use ethically ambiguous tactics as appropriate if they anticipate that the expected motivation would be more competitive. Consequences of Deception in Negotiation A negotiator who employs unethical tactic will experience positive or negative consequences. Consequences based on: ∙Effectiveness: whether tactic effective or not. ∙Reaction of others: how the other person, constituencies, and audiences evaluate the tactic. ∙Reaction of self: how the negotiator evaluates the tactic, and feels about using the tactic.
Explanations and Justifications (of your own mind) ∙primary purpose of explanations and justifications is: to rationalize, explain, or excuse the behavior to verbalize some good, legitimate reason why the tactic was necessary. Rationalizations for Unethical Conduct p. 276 ∙ Tactic was unavoidable ∙ Tactic was harmless ∙ Tactic will help avoid negative consequences ∙ Tactic will produce good consequences, or the tactic was altruistically motivated. ∙ “They had it coming”, or “They deserve it”, or “I’m just getting my due” ∙ “They were going to do anyway, so I’ll do it first” ∙ “He started it” ∙ Tactic fair and appropriate in situation What Factors Shape Negotiator’s Predisposition to use Unethical Tactics? A. Demographic Factors ∙ Sex: women tend to make more ethically rigorous judgments (better ethical decisions) than men. ∙ Age and Experience: both men and women behave more ethically with age individuals with more work experience or more direct work experience, less likely to use negotiation. (feel they’re apart of company values and goals after long time) ∙ Professional Orientation: ppl in different professions differ in judgments of perceived appropriateness. ∙ Nationality and Culture: Significant differences are found across different nationalities and cultural back grounds. B. Personality Differences ∙Competitiveness and Cooperativeness ∙ Machiavellianism some individuals are more willing and able con artists are more likely to lie when they need to
in the
other’s
unethical tactics in
better able to lie without feeling anxious about it more persuasive and effective in their lies ∙ Locus of Control degree someone believes outcome they obtain are largely a result of their own ability and effort control) vs. fate of chance (external control) individuals who are high in internal are more likely to do what they think is right. Moral Development vs. Personal Values ∙Preconventional Level (Stages 1 and 2) individual concerned with concrete outcomes that meet his own immediate needs, particularly rewards and punishments. ∙Conventional Level (Stages 3 and 4) individual defines what is right on the basis of what his immediate social situation and peer endorses or what society in general seems to want. ∙ Principle Level (Stages 5 and 6) individual bases right/wrong on broader set of universal values and principles. Higher the Stage People Achieve: more complex their moral reasoning should be more ethical decisions should be Contextual Issues on Unethical Conduct past experiences role if incentives characteristics of other party relationship between the negotiator and the other party relative power between negotiators mode of communication acting as an agent vs. representing your own views group and organizational norms and pressures How can Negotiators Deal with Other Party’s Use of Deception asking probing questions phrase questions in different ways force other party to lie or back off test other party “call” the tactic ignore the tactic discuss what you see and offer to help other party change to more honest behaviors if not against law; you’re only spreading opinion respond in kind
(internal
external
group
