Concept Maps About Design
Concept Maps About Design Information Design Theory and Critical Thinking
Muhe Yang
NEU Spring 2016
Contents 1
Introduction
2
What is design
4
Linguistics and Language — Saussure
6
The Theory of Signs — Peirce
8
Communication System — Shannon
10
Design Ethics — Buchanan
12
Institutional Ecology — Star & Griesemer
14
The Theory of Affordances — Gibson
16
Conceptual Model — Johnson & Henderson
18
Design Process — Alexander
20
SECI Model + Bridge Model — Evenson & Dubberly
22
The Science of Design — Simon
24
Systems Analysis — Rittel
26
The Design Process — Schon
28
Design as Reflective Conversation — Schon
Introduction Concept map is a way to show the relationships between different concepts, and also a way to communicate ideas with others.
This book is composed of fourteen concept maps created by myself through readings related to design.
Concept map, first of all, can visualize our own ideas in an organized way, and thus is a convenient and practical tool of assisting learning. While creating a concept map, we are actually testing ourselves to what extent we truly understand something, since a good concept map can only be created when we have a rather deep understanding towards the subject.
This is one of the projects for Information Design Theory and Critical Thinking (ARTG 6110), spring 2016, Northeastern University.
Besides, concept maps make conversation much clearer without the participants having to explaining anything unnecessary, because everything is already written on the map.
1
What is design? Everyone has his or her own idea of what design is depending on the person’s background and experience. The diagram on the right side is what I think of design. Design includes two aspects, theory and practice, with the theory guiding the practice and the practice reinforcing the theory. And the purpose of design is to fulfill users’ practical and/or ethical needs.
2
DESIGN has
guides
Theory
Practice (Process)
reinforces
undertaken by
Designers
includes
has two aspects
redesign
follows
Form can be
2D
decided by
type, color, format, etc.
e.g. graphical design
Function
decides can be
can be
3D
practical
decided by
e.g.
undertaking research can be
aesthetical
meets
usersʼ needs
by research methods include
meets
by analyzing methods include
building models
making product
tested by
Users
by
sketching and
include
product design
material, structure, appearance, etc.
into
developing solutions
give feedbacks
practical needs
aesthetical needs
decided by
observation, interview, questionaire, ethnographic research
analyzing, comparing, brainstorm
program
evaluate and refine
biuld
prototype
Users
3
Saussure
Linguistics and Language “Language is a system of signs that express ideas, and is therefore comparable to a system of writing.” “Linguistics is only a part of the general science of semiology; the laws discovered by semiology will be applicable to linguistics, and the latter will circumscribe a well-defined area within the mass of anthropological facts.” “The language problem is mainly semiological.”
4
Reference: Saussure, Ferdinand de, Wade Baskin, and Perry Meisel. 2011. Course in General Linguistics. Columbia University Press.
coexisting terms
bind Synchronic Linguistics (static linguistics)
can be
substituted for each other
Diachronic Linguistics (evolutionary linguistics)
form
system
successive terms
bind
without forming
divided into
system
Linguistics focus on
governed by
Language is
parole (speaking)
in contrast to
is individual act because executed individually
langue is
social product of faculty of speech
located in
speaking-circuit
of signs
values
conventions
unite
involve
adopted by social body
system
idea
fixed in becomes the sign of
Semiology
change in time
is
of
has
continuity in time
through
sound
bond arbitrary lead to linguistic system
concept
associated
is signified
psychological process: can be sound-image visual image transmitted into has is in contrast to signifier visual signifier is
bond
arbitrary
linear because dimension of time (only)
can offer simultaneous groupings in several dimensions
concept
associated
sound-image
physiological process: impulse
transmit
sound
physical process: ear
to
ear
5
Peirce
The Theory of Signs “A Sign is a Representamen with a mental Interpretant.” “The Objects—for a Sign may have any number of them—may each be a single known existing thing or thing believed formerly to have existed or expected to exist, or a collection of such things, or a known quality or relation or fact, which single Object may be a collection, or whole of parts, or it may have some other mode of being.” “A sign is either an icon, an index, or a symbol.”
6
Reference: Peirce, Charles S., and Justus Buchler. 1940. Philosophical Writings of Peirce. Courier Corporation.
Three Trichotomies of Signs
Representation (Representamen)
according to sign itself creates
Sign
Idea (Interpretant)
Object
collection
titu te s co ns
actual existent
Legisign
law
relation with object
s ble m se
Icon
can determine
physically connected with
denoted by
virtue of being affected by Object
Symbol
virtue of law
constitutes
Rheme
Index
can be
pronoun prepoosition
virtue of characters
Index
for Interpretant Representamen (sign)
quality
Sinsign
Icon
re
is
Symbol
can be
whole of parts Representamen
is
Qualisign
represents
has
qualitative possibility
Dicant Sign
actual existance
Argument
law
7
Shannon
Communication System “Information is a measure of one’s freedom of choice when one selects a message.” “That information be measured by entropy is, after all, natural when we remember that information, in communication theory, is associated with the amount of freedom of choice we have in constructing messages.” “In these statistical terms the two words information and uncertainty find themselves to be partners.”
8
Reference: Shannon, Claude E., and Warren Weaver. 1980. The Mathematical Theory of Communication. University of Illinois Press.
Communication System
Noise Source (Engineering Noise)
Semantic Noise influences Information Source
Message
influences
Transmitter
choose from
to
a set of possible messages determined by statistical nature
has
Signal
Communication Channel
encode (Coding Process)
Received Signal
Receiver (inverse tranmitter)
limits
to
signal entropy
decode
Message
Destination
to form related to
(the actual) message
Information expressed as
is
a measure of feedom of choice
lead to
uncertainty
measured by
entropy
H = - pilogpi (H: information; p: probabilities of choice)
9
Buchanan
Design Ethics “Design ethics concerns moral behavior and responsible choices in the practice of design. It guides how designers work with clients, colleagues, and the end users of products, how they conduct the design process, how they determine the features of products, and how they assess the ethical significance or moral worth of the products that result from the activity of designing. Ethical considerations have always played a role in design thinking, but the development of scientific knowledge and technology has deepened awareness of the ethical dimensions of design.”
10
Reference: Buchanan, Richard. 2005. “Design Ethics.” Encyclopedia of Science, Technology, and Ethics. Macmillan Reference USA.
Designers
e
guid Design Ethics
incorporate
deepen contribute through products
Development of Science & Technology
broaden
understanding of what product is
have
Design Definition
arise from
concept of system, new materials and machines, digital technology
Four Ethical Dimensions
human power to design
Character and Personal Value
conceiving, planning and bringing products to reality
Integrity of Performance
because
come from
designersʼ personal preference
personal morality
lated
professional codes of ethics
formu
by
conce
rn
professional societies
technical practice, education, business matters, etc. for
Structral Integrity of Form form
nature of products created through design
by
Product Integrity
has
three elements
include
Usability of Form Aesthetics of Form
materials
support
for for inf
lue
structural integrity
nc
ed
by
safety and reliability entire lifecycle of products making products desirable to possess and use economic necessity local community values
service nature of design
Ethical Standards and the Ultimate Purpose of Design
come
same
from
personal morality, professional organizations, etc.
as
ethical problems of citizenship
related to appopriate technology
11
Star & Griesemer
Institutional Ecology “An advantage of the ecological analysis is that it does not presuppose an epistemological primacy for any one viewpoint; the viewpoint of the amateurs is not inherently better or worse than that of the professionals.” “The creation and management of boundary objects is a key process in developing and maintaining coherence across interesting social worlds.”
12
Reference: Star, Susan Leigh, and James R. Griesemer. 1989. “Institutional Ecology, `Translations’ and Boundary Objects: Amateurs and Professionals in Berkeley’s Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, 1907-39.” Social Studies of Science 19 (3): 387–420.
discipline information
to
Science
standardization of methods
heterogeneous
is requiresr
different social worlds
need
lead to
cooperation (intersectional work)
in the case of
Alexander
wanted
wante
d
acted
as
preservation for science and posterity
Collectors (amateurs)
wante
d
need
to
wante
d
acted
as
cooperate
Trappers
d
wante
University Administration
acted
as
adapt to local needs and maintain a common identity
act a
s
sources of information and other sorts of help
problems of heterogeneity deal with have advantage of modularity e.g.
s
es a
serv
Ideal Type
Coincident Boundaries
Standardized Forms
library, museum
a means of communicating and cooperating symbolically
has advantage of adaptability results in deletion of local contingencies e.g. diagram, atlas ge of
dvanta
funding and prestige
accommodation
ordered “piles” of objects
are
Repositories
autonomy and communication anchors and bridges
four types:
ensure data in reliable quality money
“lingua franca”
maximize
primary patron
legitimacy for conservation efforts
common ground
can
commitment to conservation and educational philanthropy
mobilize cooperate
by
have
Museum of Vertebrate Zoology:
mobilize and convince
translation
boundary objects
different viewpoints
Grinnell (professional biologists)
equires
allow
act as
have a
result in e.g.
resolution of different goals work being conducted autonomously the state of California
common communication s act a ge of deleting local uncertainties have advanta
result in e.g.
standardized indexes a form for collecting information
13
Gibson
The Theory of Affordances “The affordances of the environment are what it offers the animal, what it provide or furnishes, either for good or ill.” “The different substances of the environment have different affordances for nutrition and for manufacture. The different objects of the environment have different affordances for manipulation.” “An affordance points both ways, to the environment and to the observer.”
14
Reference: Gibson, James Jerome. 1986. The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
to
ei
ts
rc
po
in
at
pe
s
injury
can be
ok
benefit
lo
ve
s
Observer
Affordance
points to
can be air
Environment
constrains
what animal can do
reflected by
have afford
medium
is where
animals live
separate behavior
surfaces separate
manufacture
substances
manipulation
objects
afford
support
shelter and concealment
other persons and animals
places and hiding places
equilibrium
permits
prerequisite to
other behaviors
posture have
biochemical offerings
attached objects
include
detached objects
mutual and reciprocal affordance
niche
h
ct wit
intera
have
afford
must be
comparable in size to animal
observer
affordance
cal to recipro
each other
based
pickup of information
on
d to
concealment
relate
afforde
d by
in
touch, sound, odor, taste, ambient light
the law of the ambient optic array enclosure
15
Johnson & Henderson
Conceptual Model “A good Conceptual Model (CM) should be at the core of the design of every artifact that people use to help them get their work done.” “A key part of interaction design is creating a conceptual model of an application. The purpose of conceptual design — of creating a conceptual model — is to get the concepts and their relationships right, to enable the desired task-flow. In other words, start by designing how the user would ideally think about the application and its use in supporting tasks.”
16
Reference: Johnson, Jeff, and Austin Henderson. 2011. Conceptual Models: Core to Good Design. Morgan & Claypool Publishers.
Designers
Activity associated with
form together as
Task Domain
driven by
Users Plan
includes
realized by
Tools
User Interface
simple & task-focused
High-level functionality
include
user profiles task analysis conceptual objects
Function delivered by
of
Major concepts and vocabulary
through
Mental Model includes
should be
structure (components):
carried out by
form
Conceptual Model has
Tasks
structure of application; idealized view of how the app works; mechanism of the app
is
through implementation
Objects/operations analysis Application
includes is
attributes of objects operations on objects relationships between objects declaration of concepts
Conceptual design issues
Mapping from task-domain
i.e.
describes
known problems
task-to-tool mapping
17
Alexander
Design Process “We wish to design clearly conceived forms which are well adapted to some given context. ” “It is therefore not possible to replace the action of a trained designer by mechanically computed decisions. Yet at the same time the individual designer’s inventive capacity is too limited for him to solve design problems successfully entirely by himself. If theory cannot be expected to invent form, how is it likely to be useful to a designer? Let us begin by stating rather more explicitly just what part the designer does play in the process of design.”
18
Reference: Alexander, Christopher. 1964. Notes on the Synthesis of Form. Harvard University Press.
Design Process:
set theory pictures
Context Actual World (unselfconscious situation)
C1
Form two-directional interaction changing misfits
F1
Design Problem a task of avoiding misfits (M)
defined as by
tree
decomposition
C2 (designerʼs) learned and invented
conceptual interaction probing for issues and development of forms
F2 (designerʼs) ideas, diagrams and drawings
is
links (L)
can be
positive
if
subproblem of M
subset
could become program
Mental Picture (selfconscious situation)
defines has
independent
can be
so that can be
solved independently
especially proper to the problem
indicates concurrence
negative indicates conflict
represented as
Linear Graph: G (M, L)
Formal Picture of Mental Picture
C3
Mathematical Picture: “sets”
(the interaction is) intuitive; remote; under control
F3
orderly complex of diagrams
serves as
a picture of a designerʼs view of some specific problem
19
Evenson & Dubberly
SECI Model + Bridge Model “Designers often speak of design as a process. Typically, design thinking leads to design making, which leads to artifacts. Yet the design process also leads to something more—to new knowledge. Thus we might characterize designing as a form of learning. Curiously, the converse is also true. We might characterize learning as a form of designing.” “The bridge model illustrates one way of thinking about the path from analysis to synthesis—the way in which the use of models to frame research results acts as a basis for framing possible futures.”
20
Reference: Evenson, Shelley and Dubberly, Hugh. “Design as learning—or “knowledge creation”— the SECI model”, ACM — Interactions — Volume XVIII — January + February 2011 — On Modeling Forum. Dubberly, Hugh and Evenson, Shelley and Robinson, Rick. “The Analysis-Synthesis Bridge Model”, ACM — Interactions — Volume XV.2 — March + April 2008 — On Modeling Forum.
isomorphic
shown as
describes
Now
shown as a specific instance of
suggest
Step 3
Step 2
Step 1S
tep 4
Socialization Converting new tacit knowledge through experience
Internalization Acquiring new tacit knowledge by individuals
Explicit
Step 3
Model of what “could be” Modeling a better situation
Model of what “is” Modeling the current situation
Step 1S
tep 4
What “could be”
What “is”
Instantiating a model
Observing the current situation
Tacit Analysis (Researching)
iterate
Abstraction (Interpret) manifest as
Collecting and systemizing explicit knowledge
Articulating tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge
Bridge Model
Future
Combination
Externalization
Tacit
SECI Model
Explicit
Step 2
Designing
a form of
(knowledge creation)
distilled to
iterative nature
a part of
Learning
has
Concrete World (Describe)
Synthesis (Prototyping)
21
Simon
The Science of Design “It is characteristic of the search for alternatives that the solution, the complete action that constitutes the final design, is built from a sequence of component actions.” “All kinds of information gathered in the course of search may be of value in selecting the next step in search. We need not limit ourselves to valuations of partial search paths.” “Solving a problem simply means representing it so as to make the solution transparent.”
22
Reference: Simon, Herbert A. 1996. The Sciences of the Artificial. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.
Design Problem Inner environment adapt to
represented by
Design Process of
Evaluation
represented by environmental parameters
finding a satisfactory design (rather than an optimum design)
Search for alternatives
command variables (alternatives of action) Outer environment
Design Goal
through Generator-Test Cycle
affect
style
generation of alternatives generators define decomposition of the design problem refine
test
compare with
testing alternatives guarantee important indirect consequences will be noticed
Representation by making the solution transparent
23
Rittel
Systems Analysis “The term ‘systems analysis’ means attacking problems of planning in a rational, straightforward, systematic way, characterized by a number of attitudes which a systems analyst and designer should have.” “Most research about creativity and problemsolving behavior is about ‘tame’ problems, because they are so easy to be manipulated and controlled. Unfortunately, little is known about the treatment of ‘wicked’ problems or of people dealing with them, because ‘wicked’ problems cannot be simulated in a laboratory setting.”
24
Reference: Rittel, Horst W. J. 1972. On the Planning Crisis: Systems Analysis of the “First and Second Generations.” Institute of Urban and Regional Development. Rittel, Horst W. J., and Melvin M. Webber. 1973. Dilemmas in a General Theory of Planning. Institute of Urban & Regional Development, University of California.
tame problems (TPs)
suit
which are
1. Understand the problem 2. Gather information 3. Analyse the information 4. Generation solutions 5. Assess the solutions 6. Implement 7. Test 8. Modify
easy to be manipulated and controlled planning problems
can be
wicked problems (WPs) which cannot be simulated in a laboratory setting
The First Generation Systems Approach
suit
The Second Generation of Systems Approach 1. 2. 3. 4.
Not concentrated in any single head Maximized involvement of people Transparency of the planning process Objectification: making the basis of oneʼs judgement explicit and communication it to others 5. No scientific planning; dealing politically 6. Planner as a mid-wife of problems 7. Planner makes careful, seasoned respectlessness 8. Moderate optimism of planner 9. Use conspiracy model of planning 10. Planning is an argumentative process
by terized charac related with has
a certain mode of procedure Operation Research shortcomings
paradoxes of rationality
because
wicked nature of problems
complementary
Intuitive
i.e.
because of
off-hand structure of judgements
can be
deliberated overall (final) partial
substitute for
integrate into
25
Schon
The Design Process “Actual design proposals are generated and selected through processes of learning that involve appreciations of figural complexity. When they are enacted, they change design structures in ways that set new conditions for the judgment of fit or misfit.” “It is the metaphor plus the dialogue of its translation that yields design structure.” “A good design process gives direction to inquiry while at the same time it leaves design structure open to transformation.”
26
Reference: Schon, Donald A, “The Design Process,” Howard, V. A., and Harvard University Philosophy of Education Research Center. 1990. Varieties of Thinking: Essays from Harvard’s Philosophy of Education Research Center. New York: Routledge.
Design as Reflective Conversation designers re-frame and learn
design process
begins with
one way of framing the problem
as
derived from
frame experiment
generative metaphor
lead to
inventing and implementing solutions
by aled reve selected by eva luat ed o n
where there are
conflicts within appreciative system
lead to
conversation
storytelling semantic and sociology of ideas the basis of appreciative systems
Design as Rational Decision
design process includes as problem-solving process
generation
by
random combination systematic search
lead to
dilemma
selection is
limited
because of
lack of the dialectical transformation of structures
27
Schon
Design as Reflective Conversation “You should begin with a discipline, even if it is arbitrary. The principle is that you work simultaneously from the unit and from the total and then go in cycle.” “Each move is a local experiment which contributes to the global experiment of reframing the problem.” “Designer must oscillate between the unit and the total, and oscillate between involvement and detachment.”
28
Reference: Schon, Donald A. 2008. The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action. Basic Books.
Three dimensions of the process: 1. Design domains moves
2. Implications
made by language of designing earlier moves
describes consequences and implications of moves might use has
lead to
metaphors
present moves
multiple reference
lead to
which has
further moves
priorities
moves of which
3. Shifts in stance
set up
designer oscillates between implications
for have
unitt
otal
involvement
detachment
consequences
for lead to yield
by which designer evaluates
create
appreciation (of new problems) system of implications within which
new phenomena
evaluate
(designer) reflects-in-action
each move is local experiment
contribute to
global experiment which is reflective conversation
29
Designing is learning.
Muhe Yang
NEU Spring 2016
Contents 1
Introduction
2
What is design
4
Linguistics and Language — Saussure
6
The Theory of Signs — Peirce
8
Communication System — Shannon
10
Design Ethics — Buchanan
12
Institutional Ecology — Star & Griesemer
14
The Theory of Affordances — Gibson
16
Conceptual Model — Johnson & Henderson
18
Design Process — Alexander
20
SECI Model + Bridge Model — Evenson & Dubberly
22
The Science of Design — Simon
24
Systems Analysis — Rittel
26
The Design Process — Schon
28
Design as Reflective Conversation — Schon
Introduction Concept map is a way to show the relationships between different concepts, and also a way to communicate ideas with others.
This book is composed of fourteen concept maps created by myself through readings related to design.
Concept map, first of all, can visualize our own ideas in an organized way, and thus is a convenient and practical tool of assisting learning. While creating a concept map, we are actually testing ourselves to what extent we truly understand something, since a good concept map can only be created when we have a rather deep understanding towards the subject.
This is one of the projects for Information Design Theory and Critical Thinking (ARTG 6110), spring 2016, Northeastern University.
Besides, concept maps make conversation much clearer without the participants having to explaining anything unnecessary, because everything is already written on the map.
1
What is design? Everyone has his or her own idea of what design is depending on the person’s background and experience. The diagram on the right side is what I think of design. Design includes two aspects, theory and practice, with the theory guiding the practice and the practice reinforcing the theory. And the purpose of design is to fulfill users’ practical and/or ethical needs.
2
DESIGN has
guides
Theory
Practice (Process)
reinforces
undertaken by
Designers
includes
has two aspects
redesign
follows
Form can be
2D
decided by
type, color, format, etc.
e.g. graphical design
Function
decides can be
can be
3D
practical
decided by
e.g.
undertaking research can be
aesthetical
meets
usersʼ needs
by research methods include
meets
by analyzing methods include
building models
making product
tested by
Users
by
sketching and
include
product design
material, structure, appearance, etc.
into
developing solutions
give feedbacks
practical needs
aesthetical needs
decided by
observation, interview, questionaire, ethnographic research
analyzing, comparing, brainstorm
program
evaluate and refine
biuld
prototype
Users
3
Saussure
Linguistics and Language “Language is a system of signs that express ideas, and is therefore comparable to a system of writing.” “Linguistics is only a part of the general science of semiology; the laws discovered by semiology will be applicable to linguistics, and the latter will circumscribe a well-defined area within the mass of anthropological facts.” “The language problem is mainly semiological.”
4
Reference: Saussure, Ferdinand de, Wade Baskin, and Perry Meisel. 2011. Course in General Linguistics. Columbia University Press.
coexisting terms
bind Synchronic Linguistics (static linguistics)
can be
substituted for each other
Diachronic Linguistics (evolutionary linguistics)
form
system
successive terms
bind
without forming
divided into
system
Linguistics focus on
governed by
Language is
parole (speaking)
in contrast to
is individual act because executed individually
langue is
social product of faculty of speech
located in
speaking-circuit
of signs
values
conventions
unite
involve
adopted by social body
system
idea
fixed in becomes the sign of
Semiology
change in time
is
of
has
continuity in time
through
sound
bond arbitrary lead to linguistic system
concept
associated
is signified
psychological process: can be sound-image visual image transmitted into has is in contrast to signifier visual signifier is
bond
arbitrary
linear because dimension of time (only)
can offer simultaneous groupings in several dimensions
concept
associated
sound-image
physiological process: impulse
transmit
sound
physical process: ear
to
ear
5
Peirce
The Theory of Signs “A Sign is a Representamen with a mental Interpretant.” “The Objects—for a Sign may have any number of them—may each be a single known existing thing or thing believed formerly to have existed or expected to exist, or a collection of such things, or a known quality or relation or fact, which single Object may be a collection, or whole of parts, or it may have some other mode of being.” “A sign is either an icon, an index, or a symbol.”
6
Reference: Peirce, Charles S., and Justus Buchler. 1940. Philosophical Writings of Peirce. Courier Corporation.
Three Trichotomies of Signs
Representation (Representamen)
according to sign itself creates
Sign
Idea (Interpretant)
Object
collection
titu te s co ns
actual existent
Legisign
law
relation with object
s ble m se
Icon
can determine
physically connected with
denoted by
virtue of being affected by Object
Symbol
virtue of law
constitutes
Rheme
Index
can be
pronoun prepoosition
virtue of characters
Index
for Interpretant Representamen (sign)
quality
Sinsign
Icon
re
is
Symbol
can be
whole of parts Representamen
is
Qualisign
represents
has
qualitative possibility
Dicant Sign
actual existance
Argument
law
7
Shannon
Communication System “Information is a measure of one’s freedom of choice when one selects a message.” “That information be measured by entropy is, after all, natural when we remember that information, in communication theory, is associated with the amount of freedom of choice we have in constructing messages.” “In these statistical terms the two words information and uncertainty find themselves to be partners.”
8
Reference: Shannon, Claude E., and Warren Weaver. 1980. The Mathematical Theory of Communication. University of Illinois Press.
Communication System
Noise Source (Engineering Noise)
Semantic Noise influences Information Source
Message
influences
Transmitter
choose from
to
a set of possible messages determined by statistical nature
has
Signal
Communication Channel
encode (Coding Process)
Received Signal
Receiver (inverse tranmitter)
limits
to
signal entropy
decode
Message
Destination
to form related to
(the actual) message
Information expressed as
is
a measure of feedom of choice
lead to
uncertainty
measured by
entropy
H = - pilogpi (H: information; p: probabilities of choice)
9
Buchanan
Design Ethics “Design ethics concerns moral behavior and responsible choices in the practice of design. It guides how designers work with clients, colleagues, and the end users of products, how they conduct the design process, how they determine the features of products, and how they assess the ethical significance or moral worth of the products that result from the activity of designing. Ethical considerations have always played a role in design thinking, but the development of scientific knowledge and technology has deepened awareness of the ethical dimensions of design.”
10
Reference: Buchanan, Richard. 2005. “Design Ethics.” Encyclopedia of Science, Technology, and Ethics. Macmillan Reference USA.
Designers
e
guid Design Ethics
incorporate
deepen contribute through products
Development of Science & Technology
broaden
understanding of what product is
have
Design Definition
arise from
concept of system, new materials and machines, digital technology
Four Ethical Dimensions
human power to design
Character and Personal Value
conceiving, planning and bringing products to reality
Integrity of Performance
because
come from
designersʼ personal preference
personal morality
lated
professional codes of ethics
formu
by
conce
rn
professional societies
technical practice, education, business matters, etc. for
Structral Integrity of Form form
nature of products created through design
by
Product Integrity
has
three elements
include
Usability of Form Aesthetics of Form
materials
support
for for inf
lue
structural integrity
nc
ed
by
safety and reliability entire lifecycle of products making products desirable to possess and use economic necessity local community values
service nature of design
Ethical Standards and the Ultimate Purpose of Design
come
same
from
personal morality, professional organizations, etc.
as
ethical problems of citizenship
related to appopriate technology
11
Star & Griesemer
Institutional Ecology “An advantage of the ecological analysis is that it does not presuppose an epistemological primacy for any one viewpoint; the viewpoint of the amateurs is not inherently better or worse than that of the professionals.” “The creation and management of boundary objects is a key process in developing and maintaining coherence across interesting social worlds.”
12
Reference: Star, Susan Leigh, and James R. Griesemer. 1989. “Institutional Ecology, `Translations’ and Boundary Objects: Amateurs and Professionals in Berkeley’s Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, 1907-39.” Social Studies of Science 19 (3): 387–420.
discipline information
to
Science
standardization of methods
heterogeneous
is requiresr
different social worlds
need
lead to
cooperation (intersectional work)
in the case of
Alexander
wanted
wante
d
acted
as
preservation for science and posterity
Collectors (amateurs)
wante
d
need
to
wante
d
acted
as
cooperate
Trappers
d
wante
University Administration
acted
as
adapt to local needs and maintain a common identity
act a
s
sources of information and other sorts of help
problems of heterogeneity deal with have advantage of modularity e.g.
s
es a
serv
Ideal Type
Coincident Boundaries
Standardized Forms
library, museum
a means of communicating and cooperating symbolically
has advantage of adaptability results in deletion of local contingencies e.g. diagram, atlas ge of
dvanta
funding and prestige
accommodation
ordered “piles” of objects
are
Repositories
autonomy and communication anchors and bridges
four types:
ensure data in reliable quality money
“lingua franca”
maximize
primary patron
legitimacy for conservation efforts
common ground
can
commitment to conservation and educational philanthropy
mobilize cooperate
by
have
Museum of Vertebrate Zoology:
mobilize and convince
translation
boundary objects
different viewpoints
Grinnell (professional biologists)
equires
allow
act as
have a
result in e.g.
resolution of different goals work being conducted autonomously the state of California
common communication s act a ge of deleting local uncertainties have advanta
result in e.g.
standardized indexes a form for collecting information
13
Gibson
The Theory of Affordances “The affordances of the environment are what it offers the animal, what it provide or furnishes, either for good or ill.” “The different substances of the environment have different affordances for nutrition and for manufacture. The different objects of the environment have different affordances for manipulation.” “An affordance points both ways, to the environment and to the observer.”
14
Reference: Gibson, James Jerome. 1986. The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
to
ei
ts
rc
po
in
at
pe
s
injury
can be
ok
benefit
lo
ve
s
Observer
Affordance
points to
can be air
Environment
constrains
what animal can do
reflected by
have afford
medium
is where
animals live
separate behavior
surfaces separate
manufacture
substances
manipulation
objects
afford
support
shelter and concealment
other persons and animals
places and hiding places
equilibrium
permits
prerequisite to
other behaviors
posture have
biochemical offerings
attached objects
include
detached objects
mutual and reciprocal affordance
niche
h
ct wit
intera
have
afford
must be
comparable in size to animal
observer
affordance
cal to recipro
each other
based
pickup of information
on
d to
concealment
relate
afforde
d by
in
touch, sound, odor, taste, ambient light
the law of the ambient optic array enclosure
15
Johnson & Henderson
Conceptual Model “A good Conceptual Model (CM) should be at the core of the design of every artifact that people use to help them get their work done.” “A key part of interaction design is creating a conceptual model of an application. The purpose of conceptual design — of creating a conceptual model — is to get the concepts and their relationships right, to enable the desired task-flow. In other words, start by designing how the user would ideally think about the application and its use in supporting tasks.”
16
Reference: Johnson, Jeff, and Austin Henderson. 2011. Conceptual Models: Core to Good Design. Morgan & Claypool Publishers.
Designers
Activity associated with
form together as
Task Domain
driven by
Users Plan
includes
realized by
Tools
User Interface
simple & task-focused
High-level functionality
include
user profiles task analysis conceptual objects
Function delivered by
of
Major concepts and vocabulary
through
Mental Model includes
should be
structure (components):
carried out by
form
Conceptual Model has
Tasks
structure of application; idealized view of how the app works; mechanism of the app
is
through implementation
Objects/operations analysis Application
includes is
attributes of objects operations on objects relationships between objects declaration of concepts
Conceptual design issues
Mapping from task-domain
i.e.
describes
known problems
task-to-tool mapping
17
Alexander
Design Process “We wish to design clearly conceived forms which are well adapted to some given context. ” “It is therefore not possible to replace the action of a trained designer by mechanically computed decisions. Yet at the same time the individual designer’s inventive capacity is too limited for him to solve design problems successfully entirely by himself. If theory cannot be expected to invent form, how is it likely to be useful to a designer? Let us begin by stating rather more explicitly just what part the designer does play in the process of design.”
18
Reference: Alexander, Christopher. 1964. Notes on the Synthesis of Form. Harvard University Press.
Design Process:
set theory pictures
Context Actual World (unselfconscious situation)
C1
Form two-directional interaction changing misfits
F1
Design Problem a task of avoiding misfits (M)
defined as by
tree
decomposition
C2 (designerʼs) learned and invented
conceptual interaction probing for issues and development of forms
F2 (designerʼs) ideas, diagrams and drawings
is
links (L)
can be
positive
if
subproblem of M
subset
could become program
Mental Picture (selfconscious situation)
defines has
independent
can be
so that can be
solved independently
especially proper to the problem
indicates concurrence
negative indicates conflict
represented as
Linear Graph: G (M, L)
Formal Picture of Mental Picture
C3
Mathematical Picture: “sets”
(the interaction is) intuitive; remote; under control
F3
orderly complex of diagrams
serves as
a picture of a designerʼs view of some specific problem
19
Evenson & Dubberly
SECI Model + Bridge Model “Designers often speak of design as a process. Typically, design thinking leads to design making, which leads to artifacts. Yet the design process also leads to something more—to new knowledge. Thus we might characterize designing as a form of learning. Curiously, the converse is also true. We might characterize learning as a form of designing.” “The bridge model illustrates one way of thinking about the path from analysis to synthesis—the way in which the use of models to frame research results acts as a basis for framing possible futures.”
20
Reference: Evenson, Shelley and Dubberly, Hugh. “Design as learning—or “knowledge creation”— the SECI model”, ACM — Interactions — Volume XVIII — January + February 2011 — On Modeling Forum. Dubberly, Hugh and Evenson, Shelley and Robinson, Rick. “The Analysis-Synthesis Bridge Model”, ACM — Interactions — Volume XV.2 — March + April 2008 — On Modeling Forum.
isomorphic
shown as
describes
Now
shown as a specific instance of
suggest
Step 3
Step 2
Step 1S
tep 4
Socialization Converting new tacit knowledge through experience
Internalization Acquiring new tacit knowledge by individuals
Explicit
Step 3
Model of what “could be” Modeling a better situation
Model of what “is” Modeling the current situation
Step 1S
tep 4
What “could be”
What “is”
Instantiating a model
Observing the current situation
Tacit Analysis (Researching)
iterate
Abstraction (Interpret) manifest as
Collecting and systemizing explicit knowledge
Articulating tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge
Bridge Model
Future
Combination
Externalization
Tacit
SECI Model
Explicit
Step 2
Designing
a form of
(knowledge creation)
distilled to
iterative nature
a part of
Learning
has
Concrete World (Describe)
Synthesis (Prototyping)
21
Simon
The Science of Design “It is characteristic of the search for alternatives that the solution, the complete action that constitutes the final design, is built from a sequence of component actions.” “All kinds of information gathered in the course of search may be of value in selecting the next step in search. We need not limit ourselves to valuations of partial search paths.” “Solving a problem simply means representing it so as to make the solution transparent.”
22
Reference: Simon, Herbert A. 1996. The Sciences of the Artificial. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.
Design Problem Inner environment adapt to
represented by
Design Process of
Evaluation
represented by environmental parameters
finding a satisfactory design (rather than an optimum design)
Search for alternatives
command variables (alternatives of action) Outer environment
Design Goal
through Generator-Test Cycle
affect
style
generation of alternatives generators define decomposition of the design problem refine
test
compare with
testing alternatives guarantee important indirect consequences will be noticed
Representation by making the solution transparent
23
Rittel
Systems Analysis “The term ‘systems analysis’ means attacking problems of planning in a rational, straightforward, systematic way, characterized by a number of attitudes which a systems analyst and designer should have.” “Most research about creativity and problemsolving behavior is about ‘tame’ problems, because they are so easy to be manipulated and controlled. Unfortunately, little is known about the treatment of ‘wicked’ problems or of people dealing with them, because ‘wicked’ problems cannot be simulated in a laboratory setting.”
24
Reference: Rittel, Horst W. J. 1972. On the Planning Crisis: Systems Analysis of the “First and Second Generations.” Institute of Urban and Regional Development. Rittel, Horst W. J., and Melvin M. Webber. 1973. Dilemmas in a General Theory of Planning. Institute of Urban & Regional Development, University of California.
tame problems (TPs)
suit
which are
1. Understand the problem 2. Gather information 3. Analyse the information 4. Generation solutions 5. Assess the solutions 6. Implement 7. Test 8. Modify
easy to be manipulated and controlled planning problems
can be
wicked problems (WPs) which cannot be simulated in a laboratory setting
The First Generation Systems Approach
suit
The Second Generation of Systems Approach 1. 2. 3. 4.
Not concentrated in any single head Maximized involvement of people Transparency of the planning process Objectification: making the basis of oneʼs judgement explicit and communication it to others 5. No scientific planning; dealing politically 6. Planner as a mid-wife of problems 7. Planner makes careful, seasoned respectlessness 8. Moderate optimism of planner 9. Use conspiracy model of planning 10. Planning is an argumentative process
by terized charac related with has
a certain mode of procedure Operation Research shortcomings
paradoxes of rationality
because
wicked nature of problems
complementary
Intuitive
i.e.
because of
off-hand structure of judgements
can be
deliberated overall (final) partial
substitute for
integrate into
25
Schon
The Design Process “Actual design proposals are generated and selected through processes of learning that involve appreciations of figural complexity. When they are enacted, they change design structures in ways that set new conditions for the judgment of fit or misfit.” “It is the metaphor plus the dialogue of its translation that yields design structure.” “A good design process gives direction to inquiry while at the same time it leaves design structure open to transformation.”
26
Reference: Schon, Donald A, “The Design Process,” Howard, V. A., and Harvard University Philosophy of Education Research Center. 1990. Varieties of Thinking: Essays from Harvard’s Philosophy of Education Research Center. New York: Routledge.
Design as Reflective Conversation designers re-frame and learn
design process
begins with
one way of framing the problem
as
derived from
frame experiment
generative metaphor
lead to
inventing and implementing solutions
by aled reve selected by eva luat ed o n
where there are
conflicts within appreciative system
lead to
conversation
storytelling semantic and sociology of ideas the basis of appreciative systems
Design as Rational Decision
design process includes as problem-solving process
generation
by
random combination systematic search
lead to
dilemma
selection is
limited
because of
lack of the dialectical transformation of structures
27
Schon
Design as Reflective Conversation “You should begin with a discipline, even if it is arbitrary. The principle is that you work simultaneously from the unit and from the total and then go in cycle.” “Each move is a local experiment which contributes to the global experiment of reframing the problem.” “Designer must oscillate between the unit and the total, and oscillate between involvement and detachment.”
28
Reference: Schon, Donald A. 2008. The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action. Basic Books.
Three dimensions of the process: 1. Design domains moves
2. Implications
made by language of designing earlier moves
describes consequences and implications of moves might use has
lead to
metaphors
present moves
multiple reference
lead to
which has
further moves
priorities
moves of which
3. Shifts in stance
set up
designer oscillates between implications
for have
unitt
otal
involvement
detachment
consequences
for lead to yield
by which designer evaluates
create
appreciation (of new problems) system of implications within which
new phenomena
evaluate
(designer) reflects-in-action
each move is local experiment
contribute to
global experiment which is reflective conversation
29
Designing is learning.
